English 102: Reading, Research, and Writing

Causes_of_concussion.svg_-1

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:50:41 +0000

OTN-Workshop-TVCC

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:50:42 +0000

5659509786_92169bba21_o

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:50:44 +0000

college-1897048_1920-1024x680

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:50:47 +0000

1000px-Tugboat_diagram-en_edit.svg_

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:50:47 +0000

Flow_chart_determining_reusability_of_a_portrait_photo-2

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:50:48 +0000

1000px-Oregon_Trail_wikivoyage_map_svg.svg_

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:50:49 +0000

MLA Citation Examples

ezickel — Mon, 30 Nov -0001 00:00:00 +0000

In-Text Citations

In-text citations in MLA style are sometimes called parenthetical citations. An in-text citation is used to let the reader of your work know that an outside source contributed to your writing of a particular phrase, idea, or argument. In-text citations need to be used following every direct quotation and paraphrase/summary that you write.

In-text citation for source with known author

These citations need to include the author’s last name and the page/paragraph number on which the information was found. If a signal phrase is used earlier in the sentence which includes the author’s name, the name does not need to be included in the citation.

Stephen Hawking describes the climate at Oxford while he was studying there as “very anti-work” (33). The climate at Oxford during his studies is described as “very anti-work” (Hawking 33).

In-text citation for source with unknown author

These citations need to include the title or shortened title of the work and the page/paragraph number on which the information was found.

While some suggest that transgender individuals should rely on law enforcement for protection it’s reported that “police often participate in the intimidation themselves rather than providing protection” (“Fighting Anti-Trans Violence” 2).

In-text citation for source with multiple authors

These citations need to include the authors’ last names and the page/paragraph number on which the information was found. If a signal phrase is used earlier in the sentence which includes the authors’ last names, the names do not need to be included in the citation. If the source has three or less authors, all the authors’ last names need to be listed in the citation.

Ishiguro, Garcia, and Schmidt suggest that more scientific research is needed before a conclusion between cause and effect can be drawn (198). “More scientific research needs to be completed before any conclusions about causation can be drawn” (Ishiguro, Garcia, and Schmidt 198).

If the source has more than three authors, only the first author’s last name needs to be listed in the citation, followed by the phrase ‘et al’.

De Walle et al. suggest that mainstream scientists and media organizations have ulterior motives when it comes to conducting such research (231). The scientists involved in these studies have suggested that mainstream scientists and media organizations may have ulterior motives when it comes to conducting such research (De Walle et al. 231).

Works Cited Entries

Works cited entry for book/print source with known author

Last name, First name. Title of Book. City of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication. Medium of Publication.

Ip, Greg. The Little Book of Economics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2010. Book.

Works cited entry for an article in a scholarly journal

Author(s). “Title of Article.” Title of Journal Volume.Issue (Year): pages. Medium of publication.

Belzer, Alisa. “From Heroic Victims To Competent Comrades: Views Of Adult Literacy Learners In The Research Literature.” Adult Education Quarterly. 65.3 (2015): 250-266. Web.

Works cited entry for a webpage

Editor, author, or compiler name (if available). “Page Title.” Name of Website. Name of publisher, date of resource creation (if available). Medium of publication. Date of access.

Ravenscraft, Eric. “How to Change Your Car’s Oil.” Lifehacker. Lifehacker, 1 August 2014. Web. 24 June 2016.

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

APA Citation Examples

ezickel — Mon, 30 Nov -0001 00:00:00 +0000

In-Text Citations

An in-text citation is used to let the reader of your work know that an outside source contributed to your writing of a particular phrase, idea, or argument. In-text citations need to be used following every direct quotation and paraphrase/summary that you write.

In-text citation for source with known author

These citations need to include the author’s last name, date which the information was published, and the page (p.) /paragraph (para.) number on which you found the information. If a signal phrase is used earlier in the sentence which includes the author’s name, the name does not need to be included in the citation.

Stephen Hawking (2013) describes the climate at Oxford while he was studying there as “very anti-work” (p. 33).

The climate at Oxford during his studies is described as “very anti-work” (Hawking, 2013, p. 33).

In-text citation for source with unknown author

These citations need to include the title or shortened title of the work in either the signal phrase or in the citation itself, the date when the information was published, and the page/paragraph number on which the information was found. Titles of books and reports are italicized or underlined; titles of articles, chapters, and web pages are in quotation marks.

In “Fighting Anti-Trans Violence” (2015), readers are told that while some suggest that transgender individuals should rely on law enforcement for protection, “police often participate in the intimidation themselves rather than providing protection” (para. 2).

In-text citation for source with multiple authors

These citations need to include the authors’ last names, the date when the information was published, and the page/paragraph number on which the information was found. If a signal phrase is used earlier in the sentence which includes the authors’ last names, the names do not need to be included in the citation. If the source has two authors, both authors’ last names need to be listed in the citation.

Research by Ishiguro and Garcia (2009), suggest that more scientific study is needed before a conclusion between cause and effect can be drawn (p. 198).

“More scientific research needs to be completed before any conclusions about causation can be drawn” (Ishiguro & Garcia, 2009, p. 198).

If the source has three – five authors, all the authors list names need to be used in either a signal phrase or in the citation the first time the source is cited. After the first citation, only the first author’s last name followed by “et al.” should be used.

De Walle, Schmidt, and Lisowski (2010) assert that mainstream scientists and media organizations have ulterior motives when it comes to conducting such research (p. 231).

The scientists involved in these studies have suggested that mainstream scientists and media organizations may have ulterior motives when it comes to conducting such research (De Walle, Schmidt, & Lisowski, 2010, p. 231).

However, De Walle et al. (2010) could not provide adequate evidence for this assertion (p. 233).

However, adequate evidence for this assertion could not be provided (De Walle et al., 2010 p. 233).

If the source has six or more authors, you only need to use the first author’s last name in either a signal phrase or in the citation.

Willig et al. (1998) were the first group of researchers to take the issue seriously and perform in-depth research to identify potential negative effects of such events (p. 52).

The first group of researchers to take the issue seriously and perform in-depth research to identify potential negative effects of such events found some disturbing trends (Willig et al., 1998, p. 52).

Works Cited Entries

Works cited entry for book/print source with known author

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.

Ip, G. (2010). The little book of economics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Works cited entry for an article in a scholarly journal

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article.Title of Journal, volume number, page range. doi: 0000000/000000000000 or http://dx.doi.org/10.0000/0000

Belzer, A., & Shapka J. (2015). From heroic victims to competent comrades: Views of adult literacy learners in the research literature. Adult Education Quarterly, 65.3, 250-266. Doi: 10.1177/0741713615580015

Works cited entry for a webpage

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of document. Retrieved from http://Web address

Ravenscraft, E. (2014, August 1). How to change your car’s oil. Retrieved from http://lifehacker.com/how-to-change-your-cars-oil-1598482301

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

CMS Signal Phrases

ezickel — Mon, 30 Nov -0001 00:00:00 +0000

Keep things interesting for your readers by switching up the language and placement of your signal phrases.

Model Phrases

In the words of geneticist Gregor Mendel, “…”1

As Derek Terrence Crab has argued, “…”2

In a letter to his brother, a Freedom Rider who witnessed the riots wrote that “…”3

“…,” claims Benjamin Disraeli.4

“…,” writes Albert Camus, “…”5

Mary Shelly offers an intriguing interpretation: “…”6

Verbs

Admits	Contends	Reasons
Agrees	Declares	Refutes
Argues	Denies	Rejects
Asserts	Emphasizes	Reports
Believes	Insists	Responds
Claims	Notes	Suggests
Compares	Observes	Thinks
Confirms	Points out	Writes

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Is-Your-Sentence-a-Fragment-1

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:51:33 +0000

Is-Your-Sentence-a-Run-On-

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:51:36 +0000

Does-Your-Sentence-Have-a-Dangling-Modifier-2

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:51:38 +0000

research process

ezickel — Sat, 22 Jul 2017 02:43:45 +0000

Essay structure

ezickel — Fri, 28 Jul 2017 17:00:15 +0000

Essay structure jpeg

ezickel — Fri, 28 Jul 2017 17:03:24 +0000

paragraph structure

ezickel — Fri, 28 Jul 2017 17:20:16 +0000

primary secondary tertiary sources

ezickel — Fri, 28 Jul 2017 18:09:51 +0000

popular vs scholarly sources

ezickel — Fri, 28 Jul 2017 18:10:41 +0000

Cover Image

ezickel — Thu, 24 Aug 2017 02:17:11 +0000

Understanding Assignments

ezickel — Wed, 26 Jul 2017 19:33:06 +0000

Before you begin working on an essay or a writing assignment, don't forget to spend some quality time analyzing the assignment sheet. By closely reading and breaking down the assignment sheet, you are setting yourself up for an easier time of planning and composing the assignment.

Understanding what you need to do

First, carefully read the assignment sheet.
Second, determine what the genre of the assignment
Third, identify the core assignment questions that you need to answer
Fourth, locate the evaluation and grading criteria
Time to get started!

Writing Genre

What, in the broadest sense, are you being asked to do? What writing genre is expected?

analysis - Analysis questions often contain words like how, in what ways, what are some of the ____. Analysis asks you to examine small pieces of the larger whole and indicate what their meaning or significance is
synthesis - if you are asked to draw from several different sources, then you will be doing [glossary_exclude]synthesis[/glossary_exclude]
explanation - any text in which you merely report (as opposed to attempting to persuade) is going to be an explanation paper. None of your own opinion is being sought. Summaries, annotations, and reports are often explanatory
argument - any text in which you are attempting to get a reader to accept your claim. Argument is persuasive writing, and it can include things like argument based research papers or critiques/evaluations of others' work.

How to Answer the Assignment Question/s

Sometimes, a list of prompts or questions may appear with an assignment. It is likely that your instructor will not expect you to answer all of the questions listed. They are simply offering you some ideas so that you can think of your own questions to ask.

Circle all assignment questions that you see on the assignment sheet
Put a star next to the question that is either the most important OR that you will pursue in creating the assignment

Recognizing Implied Questions

A prompt may not include a clear ‘how’ or ‘why’ question, though one is always implied by the language of the prompt. For example:

“Discuss the effects of the No Child Left Behind Act on special education programs” is asking you to write how the act has affected special education programs. “Consider the recent rise of autism diagnoses” is asking you to write why the diagnoses of autism are on the rise.

Identifying Writing Requirements

Some instructors offer indications of what certain parts of the essay/composition should contain. Does the assignment sheet offer suggestions or requirements for the Intro paragraph? For the thesis statement? For the structure or content of the body paragraphs or conclusion paragraphs?

Identifying Evaluation Criteria

Many assignment sheets contain a grading rubric or some other indication of evaluation criteria for the assignment. You can use these criteria to both begin the writing process and to guide your revision and editing process. If you do not see any rubric or evaluation criteria on the assignment sheet -- ask!

Recognizing Disciplinary Expectations

Depending on the discipline in which you are writing, different features and formats of your writing may be expected. Always look closely at key terms and vocabulary in the writing assignment, and be sure to note what type of evidence and citations style your instructor expects.

does the essay need to be in MLA, APA, CMS or another style?
does the professor require any specific submission elements or formats?

About Thesis Statements

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 01:59:29 +0000

A thesis serves as the guiding idea of the essay - the one core point that you will make in the essay. A thesis is provided at the end of the introduction section. A thesis functions as a guide for the paragraphs that follow. Each body paragraph will, in some way, help to develop, support or elucidate the thesis. A thesis is often called a "road map" for the rest of the essay. In the thesis, you indicate to your reader the key subtopics that you will address in the rest of the paper. Thus the reader of your paper knows what to expect in the essay. A thesis does not always have to be an argument; even explanatory papers have thesis statements.

How can you check to see if your thesis is strong?

1.Does your thesis answer the assignment question?

look over your assignment sheet for this essay/project. What is core assignment question that you need to answer? Where do you see your thesis directly addressing that question?
It is okay to reuse some of the wording from the assignment sheet in developing your thesis. For example:
- Assignment sheet says: Identify several key themes that arise in critiques of the popular media.
- Your thesis could reuse this wording: Several key themes that arise in critiques of popular media are the notions of partisanship on the part of the media corporations, partisanship among reporters, and a willingness to publish "fake news" stories.

2. Does your thesis adhere to the type of writing you are being asked to do? (persuasive or explanatory)?

Again, the type of writing that you are asked to do should be indicated on the assignment sheet. If you are not sure of what type of writing is expected of you, ask your professor.

3. Does your thesis provide enough material to meet the assignment length and depth requirements?

See the outlining chapter and try to build your outline if you are unsure of whether or not you have enough information for your thesis.

4. Does the thesis create a roadmap for the rest of the paper?

Your thesis can be a mini-outline of the body of the essay. If you indicate three ideas in your thesis that you will discuss (ideas 1, 2 and 3), then you should discuss those ideas - in the order that you presented them in the thesis - in your essay.

5. Does the thesis make sense?

A thesis must make sense as a sentence. Sometimes we get carried away in trying to "answer the assignment" and we end up with a thesis that technically addresses the assignment requirements, but ends up being a sentence that is grammatically unsound or otherwise unclear. A thesis should be a powerful, clear and interesting sentence that makes sense to the reader. If the grammar is off, the thesis will not make as much sense to a reader as it needs to and the thesis loses its power.

If the answer to any of these questions is ‘no,’ you need to revise your thesis.

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Constructing an Outline

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 01:59:48 +0000

Outlines can be helpful as you plan out your essay. They encourage you to organize your thoughts and sketch out the structure of your essay before you set out to draft. Here is a strategy for creating an outline that should help your final essay maintain focus and coherence. Always write in full sentences when outlining so that you are sure that you know what you want to say.

I. Put the thesis at the top of the page - full sentence, labeled THESIS

Underline your paper's core idea - what you are attempting to support or what your key area of focus is on
Then, indicate each different idea/subtopic in the thesis that you will address in the paper. You can number those subtopics.
for example: THESIS: While recommendations to (1)have fewer children, (2)eat a meat-free diet, and (3)avoid air and car travel are certainly ways to help alleviate climate change problems, those recommendations are unsound and unhelpful.

II. Turn each subtopic point from the thesis into a new, separate number in the outline, beneath and separate from the thesis. For example: (1) The recommendation to have fewer children is an unhelpful way to address climate change. (2) The recommendation to eat a meat-free diet is an unhelpful way to address climate change. (3) The recommendation to avoid air and car travel is an unhelpful way to address climate change. It is helpful to label each of these points as "THESIS POINT 1, 2 or 3" in the outline (see below) III. Add additional paragraphs/sections

You may need some background, definition, or context paragraphs before you can discuss the key ideas from the thesis. If you add any paragraphs like these, label them so that their function in your paper is clear.
If you are constructing an argument, you should include a counterargument that offers opposition to your thesis AND a response to that counterargument

IV. Add source materials

Once you have sketched out the flow of ideas, support each point with a quote, paraphrase or summary of information from your sources.
- source material should provide evidence/proof to support your topic sentences
- source material should relate directly to the topic sentence

EXAMPLE OUTLINE: I. THESIS: While recommendations to (1)have fewer children, (2)eat a meat-free diet, and (3)avoid air and car travel are certainly ways to help alleviate climate change problems, those recommendations are unsound and unhelpful. II. DEFINITION: What is climate change?

include statistics from National Academy of Sciences
include data from Murphy and Anderson (334)

III. THESIS POINT 1: The recommendation to have fewer children is an unhelpful way to address climate change.Why?

Evidence of this recommendation from Miller, GreenLiving, and memes
This is unhelpful because
- Jones (345) - Western population controls will not matter

IV. THESIS POINT 2: The recommendation to eat a meat-free diet is an unhelpful way to address climate change. Why?

Evidence of this recommendation from Jameison, Vegan News, memes
This is actually somewhat useful advice because meat farms do produce significant environmental toxins (Adams 32; Schlosser 219-222)
However, it is not a practical way to address climate change because of the few numbers of vegetarians in the world now; change would be slow (Boll Foundation)

V. THESIS POINT 3: The recommendation to avoid air and car travel is an unhelpful way to address climate change. Why?

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Transitions

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 01:59:10 +0000

Using transition words or phrases at the beginning of new paragraphs or within paragraphs helps a reader to follow your writing.

Transitions show the reader when you are moving on to a different idea or further developing the same idea
Transitions create a flow, or connection, among all sentences and that leads to coherence in your writing.

To show addition	also, besides, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover ** "Addition" words come only as a second or third example, They cannot, therefore, be used in the first body paragraph of an essay
To introduce examples	for example, for instance, to illustrate that point, in fact, specifically, **"Example" words come only after a point has been introduced. They cannot, therefore, begin a new idea paragraph
To compare	also, similarly, likewise, in a similar manner,
To show contrast	however, on the other hand, in contrast, nevertheless, still, on the contrary
To summarize examples within a paragraph	in other words, in short
To indicate counterargument	Some people argue that, There is an important counterargument
To show sequence or order	the first....the next....the final
Logical Relationship	if, so, therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, for this reason, because, since

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Rhetorical Situation: The Context

ezickel — Mon, 14 Aug 2017 19:28:53 +0000

During your time as a student of writing, you may hear instructors talk about “rhetorical situations.” This is a term used to talk about any set of circumstances in which one person is trying to change another person’s mind about something, most often via text (like a book, or blog post, or journal article). But any time anyone is trying to make an argument, one is doing so out of a particular context. And that context influences and shapes the argument that is made. These rhetorical situations can be better understood by examining the rhetorical concepts that they are built from. The philosopher Aristotle organized these concepts as text, author, audience, purposes, and setting.

Text

In what format or medium is the argument being made: image? written essay? speech? song? protest sign? meme? sculpture? All of those are texts.

What is gained by having a text composed in a particular format/genre?
What limitations does a particular type of text create?
What opportunities for expression does one form of text offer that another does not?

Author

Here the “author” of a text is the creator, the person utilizing communication to try to effect a change in their audience. An author doesn’t have to be a single person, or a person at all – an author could be an organization. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, one must examine the identity of the author and his or her background.

What kind of experience does the author have in the subject?
What values does the author have, either in general or with regard to this particular subject?
How invested is the author in the topic of the text? In other words, what affects the author's perspective on the topic?

Audience

The audience is any person or group who is the intended recipient of the text, and also the person/people the text is trying to influence. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, one must examine who the intended audience is by thinking about these things:

what is the audience's demographic information (age, gender, etc.)
what is/are the background, values, interests of the intended audience?
how open is this intended audience to the author?
what assumptions might the audience make about the author?
in what context is the audience receiving the text?

Purposes

What is the author hoping to achieve with the communication of this text? What do they want from their audience? What does the audience want from the text and what may they do once the text is communicated? Both author and audience can have purpose and it’s important to understand what those might be in the rhetorical situation of the text you are examining. An author may be trying to inform, to convince, to define, to announce, or to activate, while an audience’s purpose may be to receive notice, to quantify, to feel a sense of unity, to disprove, to understand, or to criticize. Any and all of these purposes determine the ‘why’ behind the decisions both groups make.

Setting

Nothing happens in a vacuum, and that includes the text you are trying to understand. It was written in a specific time, context, and/or place, all of which can affect the way the text communicates its message. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, examine the setting of both audience and author and ask yourself if there was a particular occasion or event that prompted the particular text at the particular time it was written.

Types of Evidence in Academic Arguments

ezickel — Wed, 26 Jul 2017 18:56:08 +0000

All academic writers use evidence to support their claims. However, different writing tasks in different fields require different types of evidence. Evidence is not simply "facts". Evidence is not simply "quotes". Evidence is what a writer uses to support or defend his or her argument, and only valid and credible evidence is enough to make an argument strong. What is valid or credible changes, however, according to the academic discipline. Evidence in the Humanities: Literature, Art, Film, Music, Philosophy

Scholarly essays that analyze original works
Details from an image, a film, or other work of art
Passages from a musical composition
Passages of text, including poetry

Evidence in the Humanities: History

Primary Sources (photos, letters, maps, official documents, etc.)
Other books or articles that interpret primary sources or other evidence.

Evidence in the Social Sciences: Psychology, Sociology, Political Science, Anthropology

Books or articles that interpret data and results from other people’s original experiments or studies.
Results from one's own field research (including interviews, surveys, observations, etc.)
Data from one's own experiments
Statistics derived from large studies

Evidence in the Sciences: Biology, Chemistry, Physics

Data from the author of the paper's own experiments
Books or articles that interpret data and results from other people’s original experiments or studies.

It is important to remember that evidence NEVER speaks for itself. Any evidence used to support a position must be explained - the author of the text must prove that the evidence supports his or her thesis.

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Works Cited

ezickel — Mon, 30 Nov -0001 00:00:00 +0000

This is a general list of the information you might need to create a complete citation. Depending on the citation style you are using, different information may be required for each of these sources (see the section on MLA/APA/CMS for more information on citation styles).

For Books

Author(s)
Title
Editors/translators
Edition (if not first)
Name, date, and city of publication/publisher

For Articles

Author(s)
Title and Subtitle
Name of source (magazine, journal, newspaper, etc.)
Date of publication
Volume, issue, and page numbers

If retrieved from a database, also…

Name of database
Name of subscription service
URL of database
DOI (Digital Object Identifier)
Date source retrieved

For the Web

Author(s), Editors, Creators
Title of article or webpage
Title of site
Publication information (Publishing company)
Date of publication or latest update
Site sponsor
Date source accessed
Source URL

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

APA Signal Phrases

ezickel — Mon, 30 Nov -0001 00:00:00 +0000

Keep things interesting for your readers by switching up the language and placement of your signal phrases.

Model Phrases to use in APA

In the words of Peterson (2012), “…” As Johnson and Allen (2006) have noted, “…” Einstein and Yvanovich (1956), researchers in physics, pointed out that, “…” “…,” claimed Carter (1998). “…,” wrote Dietrich (2002), “…” Linguists McAllen et al. (2015) have compiled an impressive amount of data for this argument: “…” Harrison (2007) answered these criticisms with the following rebuttal: “…”

Verbs

Admitted	Contended	Reasoned
Agreed	Declared	Refuted
Argued	Denied	Rejected
Asserted	Emphasized	Reported
Believed	Insisted	Responded
Claimed	Noted	Suggested
Compared	Observed	Thought
Confirmed	Pointed out	Wrote

Does Your Evidence Fit Your Claims?

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:01:25 +0000

Ensuring your evidence fits your claims

The most common evidence you will offer to support your claims will be quotations from the texts you read and references to passages in them. Without such evidence, your claims are merely statements of opinion.You are entitled to your opinions but you’re not entitled to having your readers agree with them. In fact, your readers generally will not highly value your opinions unless you provide some evidence to support them. When you provide evidence, you turn your opinions into arguments. But before readers can value your claim as supported with evidence, they must first understand how your evidence counts as evidence for that claim. No flaw more afflicts the papers of less experienced writers than to make some sort of claim, or to offer a quotation from the text, and assume that the reader understands how the quotations speaks to the claim. Here is an example:

Lincoln believed that the Founders would have supported the North, because as he said, this country was “dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”

The writer may be correct that Lincoln believed that the Founders would have supported the North, but what in that quotation would cause a reader to agree? In other words, how does the quotation count as evidence of the claim? The evidence says something about the views of the founders in 1776. How does that support a claim about what the founders would think about 1863? When pressed, the writer explained: “Since the Founders dedicated the country to the proposition that all men are created equal and Lincoln freed the slaves because he thought they were created equal, then he must have thought that he and the Founders agreed, so they would have supported the North. It’s obvious.” Well, it’s not. After it has been explained, it may or may not be persuasive (after all, the author of “all men are created equal” was himself a slave owner). But it isn’t obvious. Quotations rarely speak for themselves; most have to be “unpacked.” If you offer only quotes without interpreting those quotes, your reader will likely have trouble understanding how the quote, as evidence, supports your claim. Your paper will seem to be a pastiche of strung-together quotations, suggesting that your data never passed through the critical analysis of a working mind. Whenever you support a claim with numbers, charts, pictures, and especially quotations — whatever looks like primary data — do not assume that what you see is what your readers will get. Spell out for them how it is that the data counts as evidence for your claim. For a quotation, a good principle is to use a few of its key words just before or after it. Something like this:

Lincoln believed that the Founders would have supported the North because they would have supported his attempt to move the slaves to a more equal position. He echoes the Founder’s own language when he says that the country was “dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”

Licenses and Attributions

“A strategy for analyzing and revising a first draft” by Joseph M. Williams and Lawrence McEnerney, Writing in College,The University of ChicagoUniversity of Chicago Writing Program is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 3.0

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Late Revisions : Adding, Enhancing and Refining Content

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:01:46 +0000

Once you have gone through your own early draft review, and peer reviews and and any other read-throughs and analyses of your draft, you may be ready for the final stage of revision. This is not simply editing -- checking for misspelled words or missing commas. To revise is to "re-see" your paper. To look closely and deeply at it to make sure that it is making sense, that it flows, that it is meeting the core assignment requirements. To revise also means re-envisioning what the paper can be. You still have time to make major changes, such as providing additions or deleting entire sections. Those are all wonderful things to do at this final revision stage in order to make your paper stronger.

Final Revisions

Carefully consider all feedback. Based on that feedback from readers, where can you make your essay more reader-friendly? Where does it need more effort and focus?
Revisit the Assignment Sheet. If there are evaluation criteria, use them to evaluate your own draft. Identify in the paper where you are adhering to those criteria.
Consider your Sources. Are you engaging with required source materials as much or as deeply as you need to be? Do you need more source support in the paper? Do you need to enhance your source integration (signal phrases, citations)?
Revisit feedback on previous papers. Often, we make consistent errors in our writing from paper to paper. Read over feedback from other papers - even from other classes - and review your paper with special attention to those errors. There is still time to come talk to your professor about fixing them if you don't understand how to avoid them!
Visit the Writing Center. It never hurts to have an objective pair of eyes look over your work. Bring the assignment sheet with you so that the Writing Center tutors can see what the instructor's requirements for the assignment are. Communicate to the tutor about your key areas of concern or areas of focus.
Read your paper aloud - slowly. This will help you to hear any missing words or components. We often miss things when we only read because we read so quickly.
Ask for Instructor Feedback. If there are areas of your paper that you are struggling with, talk to a professor and ask for some guidance.

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Peer Review: Offer Perspectives, Not Directives

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:01:04 +0000

Remember that in peer review, you don't need to cast judgment on a classmate's work.You don't need to offer suggestions or act as a coach. You don't need to correct things. In peer review, your job is to act as a reader and to communicate your reading experience to the writer. Be honest, be accurate, be detailed. Be descriptive. Write in such a way that you offer your genuine readerly perspective to your partner, not a list of directions or directives.

Helpful Peer Review Phrases

Try to offer several statements from each category

To offer observations of assignment goals met

I see your thesis at the end of your intro paragraph
I see transition phrases at the beginning of each new paragraph
I can see that you ___________, which is a goal of this paper
I do not see a Works Cited

To express places where you struggled as a reader

In your ________ paragraph I see....but I do not see....
My understanding is that the thesis of this paper should _______. I did not clearly see ______ in your thesis. Instead, I see (explain).
I was confused by this sentence (share the sentence) and I took it to mean (explain how you read that sentence).
In paragraph ______ I thought that, based on what you said in the first sentence, the whole paragraph would discuss X. But it looks to me like at the end of the paragraph, you begin discussing Y, which felt to me like a new and different idea.

To express places where, as a reader, you were drawn in to the writing

I thought that the second paragraph was really clear and interesting because....
I like the way that you structured paragraph X because ....
I appreciate your use of (signal phrases? citations? MLA format? transitions? etc) because I have been struggling with that in my own writing. Thanks for the example .

Here is a list of phrases that can be ineffective.

These types of phrases are telling the writer what to do and/or simply offering judgment. They are "you" statements, not "I" statements. Try to avoid these types of peer assessment phrases:

~~You should~~
The assignment says to ____~~_ but you didn't do that~~
~~You need more____~~
~~You need less_____~~
To ~~make the paper better, you need to____~~

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

"What Is Academic Writing?"

ezickel — Mon, 14 Aug 2017 19:21:11 +0000

[h5p id="1"]

Basic Essay Structure

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 01:58:12 +0000

Essays written for an academic audience follow a structure with which you are likely familiar: Intro, Body, Conclusion. Here is a general overview of what each of those sections "does" in the larger essay. Be aware, however, that certain assignments and certain professors may ask for additional content or require unusual formatting, so always be sure to read the assignment sheet as carefully as possible.

Introductory Section

Hook: Begins with information to draw the reader in:
- Compelling quote about your topic (signal phrase and citation are needed!)
- Interesting fact about your topic
- Brief story about your topic
Context: Provides basic information about your topic that leads into the thesis
Thesis: Ends with the statement that provides a focus for the entire essay: the thesis

Body of the Essay

Paragraph order should follow the order of ideas that you laid out in the thesis
All paragraphs should remain focused on the thesis
Each paragraph discusses ONE idea; a topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph will indicate that one idea

Conclusion

Goes beyond merely summarizing and restating your thesis and all of your main points.
- A strong conclusion leaves the reader with a sense of why this paper - and its topic - matter, and to whom, and in what way.
- A strong conclusion could issue a call to further action, or a call for further research
- A strong conclusion could revisit the "Hook" from the intro and elaborate on it as a way to close the essay

Basic Paragraph Structure

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 01:58:33 +0000

Paragraphs are the building blocks of any essay. Think of each paragraph as developing one aspect of the thesis. Each paragraph does a small part of the job of proving or supporting the essay's thesis. Some paragraphs are short; some are long. All paragraphs should develop one core idea - which is indicated in the Topic Sentence - using as much evidence and explanation as necessary.

Topic Sentence : Begins the Paragraph

Topic sentences indicate to the reader what one idea you will cover in that paragraph.

Topic sentences often include Transition phrases to indicate when you are beginning to either discuss a new idea or develop a new angle on the idea from the previous paragraph.
Topic sentences should be YOUR voice. Try to avoid beginning paragraphs with quotes or references to sources; beginning with your voice allows you to maintain control over your paper

Examples and Evidence: the "Body" of the Paragraph

Topic sentences need examples and evidence to be logically developed. Examples and evidence could be

Quotes, paraphrases or summaries from sources
Observations from you
Any other information that helps to develop your Topic Sentence

Explanation : Concludes and Relates Back to the Thesis

Again, you incorporate YOUR voice to help articulate the significance of the examples/evidence you included.

How/why does your evidence support the topic sentence?
How/why does the information in this paragraph relate to the paper's thesis?

"I Need You to Say I"

ezickel — Mon, 14 Aug 2017 20:09:57 +0000

[h5p id="2"]

Early Revisions : You Have So Much Room to Grow!

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:00:50 +0000

You have a draft! You have, in many ways, done a lot of the hard work: getting ideas down on paper or on the screen. Here are some strategies for approaching the "shape up" phase of your draft.There is a lot of opportunity here, for you to add, delete, rearrange, expand and realize what you would like to rethink. Re-read your draft and see if you can clearly identify some of the key components of an essay

Early Draft Review Questions

First: Your introductory section.
1. Does it have some sort of a "hook"?
2. Does it present Context for the paper topic?
3. Does it have a draft thesis at the end?
Second: Body
1. Are paragraphs separated from one another with indentations?
2. Can you identify a single key idea/topic in each paragraph?
Conclusion
1. The conclusion may be the last thing that you write. Some writers choose to take sentences that feel out of place or perhaps repetitive and copy and paste them into a draft conclusion paragraph, which can be edited later. If you have a draft conclusion early on, great. If not, don't worry.

Once you have determined these key elements of essay structure, you can look a little deeper at some areas where you would like to put in more work. These might also be areas that are brought to your attention after a peer or instructor review.

Deeper review of an early draft

Intro: Do you want to work on making the introduction paragraph(s) more powerful?

Thesis: Do you feel that the thesis should be made clearer, more complex or otherwise more developed for what you want to say in the rest of the paper?
Focus: Are there any paragraphs or sections that don't seem to fit as is?
Flow: Do you want to work on making the ideas less "choppy" or less repetitive? Where do you see choppiness or repetitiveness?
Topic Sentences: Do you have distinct Topic Sentences at the beginning of paragraphs to indicate what idea that paragraph will develop?
Transitional Phrasing: Do you see yourself using transitional language to begin new paragraphs, to move to new ideas, to link ideas together within paragraphs?
Source Citation: Have you cited all of the sources that you have integrated?
Source Integration: Are you explaining the significance of quotes, paraphrases or summaries that you include?

Final Editing

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:02:04 +0000

You have drafted, gotten feedback, revised, redrafted, gotten more feedback, revised, redrafted....and now you are ready to polish the paper up and hand it in. This is a general checklist for editing a paper. Any assignment will have additional specific requirements; what follows is a general checklist for ensuring submission readiness.

Final Editing

Document Format: Paper is laid out in proper formatting (MLA, APA, CMS, etc). If you are not sure of the formatting guidelines, google image searches can give you a visual example.
Works Cited is included if you have used any sources. Yes, if you cite just one source in your paper, you must include a Works Cited page. Be sure that it is formatted in the assignment's required style (MLA, APA, CMS, etc)
Spacing (double spaced throughout)
Indentations at the beginning of each new paragraph (hit tab at the beginning of each paragraph to indent)
Thesis is at the end of the Intro section and directly responds to the assignment question
Transition phrasing is used that the beginning of new body paragraphs (except for the very first paragraph to follow the intro)
Signal phrases are used to indicate quoted, paraphrased, or summarized material
Parenthetical citations are used at the end of sentences where you have quoted, paraphrased, or summarized material

Choosing a Topic

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:02:39 +0000

"I write out of ignorance. I write about the things I don't have any resolutions for, and when I'm finished, I think I know a little bit more about it. I don't write out of what I know. It's what I don't know that stimulates me."-Toni Morrison, author and Northeast Ohio native Think of a research paper as an opportunity to deepen (or create!) knowledge about a topic that matters to you. Just as Toni Morrison states that she is stimulated by what she doesn't yet know, a research paper assignment can be interesting and meaningful if it allows you to explore what you don't know. Research, at its best, is an act of knowledge creation -- and this knowledge creation is the essence of any great educational experience. Instead of being lectured at, you get to design the learning project that will ultimately result in you demonstrating your own intellectual growth. As you choose your research topic, start with something that you do not not know, but that you want to know. Choose a topic that you often hear about, but want to understand better. Or Choose a topic that represents something you have lived through, but don't fully understand. Or Choose a topic that you have a strong opinion on, but are willing to try to understand others' opinions and how those opinions are shaped. Or Choose something that is relevant to you, personally or professionally. And once you have chosen perhaps a few topics that feel interesting and meaningful, see how they hold up to the criteria for a good and manageable research topic that are laid out here: [embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDuqfJQhFeM[/embed]

From Topic to Research Question

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:05:29 +0000

Once you have decided on a research topic - an area for academic exploration that matters to you - it is time to start thinking about how you will approach the research for that topic. The goal of college level research assignments is never going to be to simply "go find sources" on your topic. Instead, you need to think of sources as helping you to answer a research question or a series of research questions about your topic. These should not be simple questions with simple answers, but rather complex questions about which there is no easy or obvious answer. A compelling research question is one that may involve controversy, or may have a variety of answers, or may not have any single, clear answer. All of that is okay and even desirable. Make sure that your research question is clear, specific, researchable and limited (but not too limited). Here is a deeper explanation of what a good research question is as well as examples of strong research questions: [embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89NonP_iZZo[/embed]

Introductions and Conclusions

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:00:07 +0000

Intros and conclusions can be the most challenging paragraphs to write in a paper. Some writers save these paragraphs until the very end of their writing process. Some begin with these paragraphs as a way to guide the rest of the paper's drafting and development. However you choose to draft these two paragraphs, be sure to give them care and attention, as they are each very important parts of any essay.

The intro

This paragraph is the "first impression" paragraph. It needs to make an impression on the reader so that he or she gets interested, understands your goal in the paper, and wants to read on. The intro often ends with the thesis.

Strategies for a Strong Intro

"How to Write an Engaging Introduction," by Jennifer Janechek, published on Writing Commons, is an excellent resource that offers specific tips and examples of compelling introduction paragraphs.

The Conclusion

Many people struggle with the conclusion, not knowing how to end a paper without simply restating the paper's thesis and main points. In fact, one of the earliest ways that we learn to write conclusions involves the "summarize and restate" method of repeating the points that you have already discussed. While that method can be an effective way to perhaps begin a conclusion, the strongest conclusions will go beyond rehashing the key ideas from the paper. Just as the intro is the first impression, the conclusion is the last impression -- and you do want your writing to make a lasting impression.

Strategies for a Strong Conclusion

Jennifer Yirinic's article, "How to Write a Compelling Conclusion," which was published on Writing Commons, is an excellent resource that can help you to craft powerful and interesting closing paragraphs.

Analytical Reading of Your Sources

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:11:41 +0000

To do effective research, we have to go beyond thinking that more sources are always better. Instead, we should be careful to seek the most relevant, useful and compelling sources that fit our research needs.

When you set out to analyze an essay or article, consider these questions to help you summarize (annotate):

Is the author writing to explain or writing to persuade?
Is this a primary, secondary or tertiary source?
What is the thesis or central idea of the text?
Who is the intended audience?
What questions does the author address?
How does the author structure the text? What are the key parts of the text?
How do the key parts of the text relate to the thesis?
How does the author convince the readers of their argument’s merit?
What evidence is provided in support of the thesis?

The answers to all of these questions would constitute a summary of that text, which is the content of an annotation (if you are doing an annotated bibliography). If you are using this source in a research paper or any other paper that requires you to draw perspectives from a variety of sources, you would also want to ask some synthesis questions as you read:

Does this author's perspective sound like any other authors' perspectives? How so?
Does it differ from other authors' perspectives? In what way(s)?

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Annotated Bibliography

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:13:42 +0000

An annotation often offers a summary of a source that you intend to use for a research project as well as some assessment of the source's relevance to your project or quality and credibility. Here are the key components of a typical annotation:

Works Cited Reference

You will provide the full bibliographic reference for the source: author, title, source title, and other required information depending on the type of source. This will be formatted just as it would be in a typical Works Cited.

Summary of the source

At the very beginning of your summary, mention the title of the text you are summarizing, the name of the author, and the central point or argument of the text.
Describe the key sections of the text and their corresponding main points. Try to avoid focusing on details; a summary covers the essential points.
Always maintain a neutral tone and use the third-person point of view and present tense (i.e. Tompkins asserts…).
Keep the focus of the summary on the text, not on what you think of it, and try to put as most of the summary as you can in your own words. If you must use exact phrases from the source that you are summarizing, you must quote and cite them.
Present the text’s main points only and be concise! Every word counts.

Additional content

Check the assignment sheet for the annotated bibliography. Do you need to go beyond summarizing the source? Do you need to evaluate the source's credibility or relevance? Do you need to offer an explanation of how you plan to integrate the source in your paper? Do you need to point out similarities or differences with other sources in the annotated bibliography? Any (or all) of those things may be required in an annotated bibliography.

Formatting

Annotated bibliographies require formatting, which is different depending on what type of style guide you must adhere to: MLA, APA, CMS, etc. Be sure to check the formatting and style guidelines (resources abound online, including visual models) for your annotated bibliography assignment.

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Questions for Thinking about Counterarguments

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:09:42 +0000

Almost anything you can argue or claim in a paper can be refuted. Opposing points of view and arguments exist in every debate, and it’s important to anticipate possible objections to your arguments. In order to do that, ask yourself the following questions:

Could someone draw a different conclusion from the facts or examples you present? if so, what are they?
Could a reader question any of your assumptions or claims? If so, which ones?
Could a reader offer a different explanation of an issue? If so, what might their explanation be?
Is there any evidence out there that could weaken your position? If so, what is it?

If the answer to any of these questions is yes, the next set of questions can help you respond to these potential objections:

Is it possible to concede the point of the opposition, but then challenge that point’s importance/usefulness?
Can you offer an explanation of why a reader should question a piece of evidence or consider a different point of view than the one that your opponent (counterarguer) presents?
Can you explain how your position responds to any contradicting evidence?
Can you put forward a different interpretation of evidence?

You can use transitional phrases in your paper to alert readers that you’re about to present an objection. It’s usually best to put this phrase at the beginning of a paragraph such as:

Researchers have challenged these claims with…
Critics argue that this view…
Some readers may point to…

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Keyword Searching: Do it Better!

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:06:28 +0000

Good research involves creative searching.If you have taken the time to think through what types of information you want and what types of sources you want that information from, then you are already off to a great start in terms of searching creatively. But another key step in good research is in thinking about using effective keywords.

Some tips for getting the results that you want from a search:

Use quotation marks. Searching a phrase? Put it in quotation marks: “textbook affordability” will get you results for that exact phrase.
Use AND/+. Searching for two terms that you think are topically related? Use AND (or +) to connect them: education AND racism, or, education + racism, will only bring up results that include both terms
Use NOT/- to limit what you don't want. Searching for a term that’s commonly associated with a topic you don’t want to learn about? Use NOT (or -) in front of the keyword you don’t want results from: articles NOT magazines, or, articles – magazines, will bring up results that are about articles, but exclude any results that also include the term magazines.
Use an asterisk to get a variety of word endings. Want to get back as many results on a topic as possible? Use * at the end of a word for any letters that might vary: smok*, will bring up results that include the term smoke, smoking, and smokers.
Remember to search terms, not entire phrases or sentences. And swap out synonyms for your core keywords. This video helps to explain how you can play around with key terms:

[embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x9diL8-ZpAk[/embed]

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Research Strategy: Coming Up with Keywords for Your Topic

What are at least two phrases related to your research topic that you can search "in quotation marks"?
What are your NOT words -- the words that you want to exclude from your search?
For which words would the asterisk be helpful?
What are three core keywords (using the guidelines in the video above) that you can use in a search for your topic? What are synonyms for each of those three words?

A Deeper Look at Scholarly Sources

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:11:00 +0000

Scholarly sources are different from what most of us read each day. We are constantly exposed to "popular" media - news websites, TV channels, magazines and newspapers. It is generally only in college that we get exposure - and access - to scholarly articles and books.

A scholarly source is any material that

has been produced by an expert in his or her field (often this means people with Ph.D's who work as researchers or professors at colleges or universities), and
has been rigorously reviewed by other experts in that same field, and
has been published for an audience also highly involved in that field (often other people who have Ph.D.s in the same academic discipline).

A source is said to be scholarly if the following are true:

The source is written with formal language
Information is presented in a formal, highly prescribed format (scholarly articles tend to follow a similar layout, pattern, and style)
- Scholarly sources contain Literature Reviews, which help to contextualize the author's research. For more information on Literature Reviews, see the chapter on Synthesis and Literature Reviews
The author(s) of the source have an academic background (scientist, professor, etc.).
The source includes a bibliography (also called Works Cited or, simply, References) documenting the works cited in the source
The source includes original work and analysis done by the author(s), rather than just summary of what others have already studied or written about
The source includes evidence from primary sources/one's own primary research
The source includes a description of the author(s) methods of research.

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Evaluating Newspaper and Magazine Articles

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:11:57 +0000

"Fake news!" "Media Bias!" We hear charges like these often, mostly in reference to the types of popular sources that we can find on the internet, on TV, on the radio, or in print. We should not be tempted to write off all popular news sources as somehow "bad"; we should, however, be willing to evaluate any news source's authority and credibility before choosing to include it in any academic assignment. How to evaluate newspaper and magazine sources? Do some research on the author and the publication, and use your critical reading skills in examining the article's strength.

Author Bias

Do a background check on the author of the material.

Does the author support a particular political or religious view that could be affecting his or her objectivity in the piece?
Is the author supported by any special-interest groups (i.e. the American Library Association or Keep America Safe)?

Authority and Expertise of Author

Who is the author? A highly educated expert on that topic who is choosing to publish an article for a popular, mainstream audience? A journalist who specializes in the topic? A journalist whose specialty is unclear? A citizen who is weighing in? Is the author writing from personal experience, or is he/she synthesizing and offering commentary on others' experiences? Each of these different levels of expertise will confer a different level of authority on the topic. Be careful that you are not using an article that is actually a middle school student essay published in a school newspaper!

Publication Ideology

Certain newspapers or magazines are subject to corporate owners' political ideologies or biases. Just as you can do some background research on an individual author, do some research on the publication that hosts the article you would like to use. Does it lean liberal or conservative? Is it religious or secular? If you cannot easily answer these questions by reading the source, don't be afraid to do seek those answers through further research. Assess the Quality of the Argument, if the article is persuasive Identify the author’s main claim. Pay attention to what the author uses to support his or her claim – do you find relevant evidence or just emotional examples? Do you find statistics used consistently and fairly, with an explanation of where they came from? Do you see logical fallacies in the author’s argument? Does the author consider opposing viewpoints-- if so, how thoroughly?

Assess the Quality of the Explanation, if the article is explanatory

Identify the author’s thesis. Pay attention to how balanced the author's explanation is – does he or she present all sides equally so as to avoid clear judgement? Does the author effectively summarize sources used? (Please note that magazine and newspaper writing style does not require the types of in-text citations that we use in our papers).

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Evaluating Websites

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:12:15 +0000

Author

Most reputable websites will list or cite an author, even though you might have to dig into the site deeper than just the section you’re interested in to find it. Most pages will have a home page or “About Us”/”About This Site” link where an author will be credited. Once you find the name of the author, see what else you can find out about them, including their background in the area they are writing about. If these author’s qualifications are not listed on the site itself, search on author sites or in other sources.

Sponsorship

The sponsor of the site, the person or organization who is footing the bill, will often be listed in the same place as the copyright date or author information. If you can’t find an explicit listing for a sponsor, double check the URL: .com indicates a commercial site, .edu an educational one, .org a nonprofit, .gov a government sponsor, .mil a military sponsor, or .net a network of sponsors. The end part of a URL may also tell you what country the website is coming from, such as .uk for the United Kingdom or .de for Germany.

Purpose

Determine why the site was created and who it was meant to inform. For example, is it a website that was created to sell things, or a page hoping to persuade voters to take a side on a particular issue?

Relevance

Depending on the information you are using, the currency of the site could be vital. Check the bottom of the webpage for the date of publication or the date of the latest update. Most of the links on the site should also still work – if they no longer do, that may be a sign the site is too out of date to be useful.

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing to Avoid Plagiarism

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:16:14 +0000

This chart follows MLA style. For information on other styles see those sections (APA and CMS).

Using something word-for-word from another source?	Put quotation marks around the excerpt, use a signal phrase, and include a parenthetical citation with the page number: McGuffin and Cross have said, “No one should ever eat cake without frosting” (22). Or Cake, according to McGuffin and Cross, is one of those foods that should never be eaten “without frosting” (22).
Using something word-for-word from another source but changing word forms or adding words to improve clarity and flow?	Put quotation marks around the excerpt, and put brackets around the segments you have changed. Include a signal phrase and a parenthetical citation with the page number: McGuffin and Cross seem to think that “…eat[ing] cake without frosting” should never be allowed (22).
Paraphrasing or summarizing the author’s ideas without using the author’s exact words?	Use a signal phrase and include a parenthetical citation with the page number: According to McGuffin and Cross, cake is one of those special foods that require an additive to be properly enjoyed, like frosting (22).
Using something from a source but substituting in some synonyms?	DON’T. This is plagiarism, even if you use a signal phrase and include a parenthetical citation.

Quotations

All quoted material should be enclosed in quotations marks unless set off from the rest of the text.
Quoted material should be an accurate word-for-word reproduction from the author's original text. If anything was changed, brackets [these are brackets] or an ellipsis (...) should indicate where the changes/omissions took place.
A clear signal phrase should alert your readers for each quotation and tell them why the quotation is there.
A parenthetical citation should follow each quotation.
Each quotation must be put in context. You, as the author of your essay, should explain the significance of the quotation to your reader. Explaining the significance means indicating how the quoted material supports the point you are making in that paragraph.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrases allow you to describe specific information from a source (ideas from a paragraph or several consecutive paragraphs) in your own words.
Paraphrases of the text should be the author's ideas expressed in your own words. If you must use a few of the author's words, they must have quotation marks around them.
Paraphrases must be followed by parenthetical citations.
A signal phrase should let your readers know where the paraphrased material begins.
You need to explain to your reader why the paraphrased material is significant to the point you are making in your paper.

Summarizing

Summaries allow you to describe general ideas from a source.
Any summaries of the text should not include direct wording from the original source. All text should be in your words, though the ideas are those of the original author.
A signal phrase should let your readers know where the summarized material begins.
If you are offering a general summary of an entire article, there is no need to cite a specific page number.

Statistics & Facts

Any facts that are not common knowledge must have a parenthetical citation included in your paper.
Use a signal phrase to help your reader understand why the facts are being cited, unless it is clear enough without one.

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

What is MLA, APA, and CMS?

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:15:53 +0000

MLA stands for Modern Language Association. It is a style of formatting academic papers that is used mostly in the arts and humanities. APA stands for American Psychological Association, the professional guild who first developed the guidelines of the style. APA is a style of formatting academic papers that is used mostly in the social sciences. CMS stands for the Chicago Manual of Style. It is a style of formatting written works that is most widely used in publishing.

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

"Reading Games: Strategies for Reading Scholarly Sources"

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:11:17 +0000

[h5p id="4"]

"On the Other Hand: The Role of Antithetical Writing in First Year Composition Courses"

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:07:51 +0000

[h5p id="3"]

Types of Sources: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:10:23 +0000

One way to classify sources is by the proximity of information to the time period, event or research study out of which they arise. These we call primary, secondary and tertiary sources.

Primary Sources

Primary sources are texts that arise directly from a particular event or time period. They may be letters, speeches, works of art, works of literature, diaries, direct personal observations, newspaper articles that offer direct observations of current events, survey responses, tweets, other social media posts, original scholarly research or any other content that comes out of direct involvement with an event or a research study. Primary research is information that has not yet been critiqued, interpreted or analyzed by a second (or third, etc) party. Primary sources can be popular (if published in newspapers, magazines or websites for the general public) or scholarly (if written by scholars and published in scholarly journals).

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources summarize, interpret, critique, comment on or analyze primary sources. In a secondary source, an author may be summarizing, interpreting or analyzing data or information from someone else's research or offering an interpretation or opinion on current events. But the secondary source is one step away from that original, primary topic/subject/research study. Secondary sources can be popular (if published in newspapers, magazines or websites for the general public) or scholarly (if written by scholars and published in scholarly journals).

Tertiary Sources

Tertiary sources are syntheses of primary and secondary sources. They include encyclopedias, fact books, dictionaries, guides, and handbooks.

[embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dv3D8q4LZbM[/embed]

Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources and your Research Strategy

What kinds of primary sources would be useful for your research project? Why? Where will you find them? Are you more interested in popular primary sources or scholarly primary sources -- and why?
What kinds of secondary sources could be useful for your project - and why? Are you more interested in popular secondary sources or scholarly secondary sources - and why?
What kinds of tertiary sources will you try to access? Why?

Synthesis as a Conversation

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:14:20 +0000

Synthesizing To synthesize is to combine ideas and create a completely new idea. That new idea becomes the conclusion you have drawn from your reading. This is the true beauty of reading: it causes us to weigh ideas, to compare, judge, think, and explore—and then to arrive at a moment that we hadn’t known before. We begin with simple summary, work through analysis, evaluate using critique, and then move on to synthesis. What are the features of synthesis? Synthesis is a flexible skill involving the use of other sources that either support your own view or assert an opposing point of view. Good writers always consider the opinions of people with whom they disagree then use those opinions to further defend their own. Therefore, in this essay, synthesis means comparing and contrasting your views with those of others. You may also compare and contrast the views of your sources, noting places where they seem to support each others' ideas, and places where they might disagree or conflict.

For a more in-depth explanation of what synthesis writing is, what its goals are and how you can approach synthesis, visit the Writing Commons article "Identifying a Conversation"

The content on this page is from Melanie Gagich's book Introduction to Writing in College, which is licensed as CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 and can be accessed here.

Phrases that begin the work of synthesis

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:15:16 +0000

Examples of sentence structures that demonstrate synthesis: Synthesis that indicates agreement/support:

Source A asserts that… Source B agrees when he or she states…
According to both A & B…
The combined conclusions of sources B & C seem to indicate that…
The evidence shows that…
Source B is correct that…
Source C makes a convincing case when she argues…
I agree with Source A’s conclusion that…

Synthesis that indicates disagreement/conflict:

Source A asserts that…Yet Source B offers a different perspective by…
Source C & B would likely disagree regarding…
My view, however, contrary to what Source A has argued, is…
I argue that X & Y are the best solution, though Source B offers a different option.
In contrast, I would like to offer some objections to the opinions expressed by source C…
While source A makes an intriguing argument, I would disagree…

What the above examples indicate is that synthesis is the careful weaving in of outside opinions in order to show your reader the many ideas and arguments on your topic and further assert your own. Notice, too, that the above examples are also signal phrases: language that introduces outside source material to be either quoted or paraphrased. The content on this page is from Melanie Gagich's book Introduction to Writing in College, which is licensed as CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 and can be accessed here.

Rhetorical Strategies: Building Compelling Arguments

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:07:27 +0000

Rhetoric pertains to how authors use and manipulate language in order to persuade an audience. To be rhetorically effective (and thus persuasive), an author must engage the audience in a variety of compelling ways. We can classify these as Logos, Pathos, and Ethos.

Logos: Appeal to Logic

Logic. Reason. Rationality. Logos is brainy and intellectual, cool, calm, collected, objective. Logically sound writing often includes many examples to support a point - and those examples come from citation of credible data and statistics, reference to sound theories, reference valid research conducted by credible organizations. Logical appeals rest on rational modes of thinking, such as

Comparison : you compare one thing (with regard to your topic) to another, similar thing to help support your claim. It is important that the comparison is fair and valid - the things being compared must share significant traits of similarity.
Cause/effect thinking : you argue that X has caused Y, or that X is likely to cause Y to help support your claim. Be careful with the latter - it can be difficult to predict that something "will" happen in the future.
Deductive reasoning: you start with a general claim/example and then use it to justify a in a smaller claim
Inductive reasoning: you use several specific examples or cases and use them to make a larger generalization
Exemplification: use of many examples to support a single point

Pathos: Appeal to Emotions

Pathos is deeply human - an author using pathetic appeals wants the audience to feel something: anger or pride or joy or rage or happiness. Pathetic appeals rest on emotion-based modes of communication . To engage the audience on an emotional level, the author may

add expressive descriptions of people, places or events that helps the reader to feel or experience those events
include vivid imagery of people, places or events that helps the reader to feel like he or she is seeing those events
share personal stories that help the reader feel connected to the person being described
use vocabulary or sentence structure that revolves around a particular emotion: sadness, happiness, fear, joy, anger, disgust, horror.
try to include any information that will evoke an emotional response from the audience. This could involve making the audience feel empathy or disgust for the person/group/event being discussed, or perhaps connection to or rejection of the person/group/event being discussed.

Pathos-based strategies are any strategies that get the audience to "open up" to the topic or to the author. Emotions can make us vulnerable, and rhetors can use this vulnerability to get the audience on his or her side.

Ethos: Appeal to Values/Trust

Ethical appeals have two facets. One the one hand, an ethical appeal taps into the values that the audience holds, for example, patriotism, tradition, justice, equality, dignity for all humankind, self preservation, or other specific social, religious or philosophical values (Christian values, socialism, capitalism, feminism, etc). These values can sometimes feel very close to emotions, but they are felt on a social level rather than only on a personal level. If an author can evoke the values that the audience cares about in his or her argument, then he or she has a chance of persuading that audience because the audience will feel that the author is making an argument that is "right" (in the sense of moral "right"-ness). This sense of referencing what is "right" in an ethical appeal connects to the moral character of the speaker/author. The author may draw attention to who he or she is as a way to engage the audience (i.e., "Because I support this - and you all you trust me because we share the same values! - you should, too"). If an author can present his or her moral character, one that the audience trusts because they (author and audience) share values, then he or she has a chance of persuading that audience. In this sense, the audience will feel that the author is the right person to make this argument and should therefore be believed. In building ethical appeals, we see authors

referring either directly or indirectly to the values that matter to the intended audience
using reasoning or logic that relies on these values
using language, phrasing, imagery or other writing style common to people who hold those values - tapping into the discourse community of people with those values
doing anything else that shows the audience that the author understands and shares their values

Types of Sources: Popular and Scholarly

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:10:42 +0000

Popular Sources

Popular, here, is being used in the sense of "for the people" (as opposed to "likeable"). Popular sources are written for a public audience, not necessarily for experts. Popular sources are often written by journalists, though sometimes experts in a particular field will author an article for a popular publication like a newspaper or magazine. We can also consider blog posts, websites (yes, even ".org" and ".edu" websites), and social media posts popular sources.

Scholarly Sources

Scholarly sources are articles that are published in academic research journals. They are generally written by people who hold Ph.D.'s in an academic field for other Ph.D.'s in that same field. In scientific scholarly articles, the goals, methods, and results of the author's original research is described. In scholarly publications in the Humanities, authors' original analyses are conducted. Before being published, a scholarly article must go through a rigorous process of peer review, whereby other experts (also people with Ph.D.'s) in the author's same field read through the paper in order to approve it for publication. This is a rigorous process that goes well beyond editing and instead examines the validity of the research project and its findings. [embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tN8S4CbzGXU[/embed]

Evaluating Scholarly Sources

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:12:50 +0000

While scholarly sources are often deemed credible because they come out of a rigorous process of peer review-before-publication, we should still take time to examine and evaluate such sources before we use them. Yes, even scholarly sources contain embedded biases!

Author

How prolific is the author in his or her field? Has he or she written extensively on the topic that is addressed in this paper? Often you can check the List of References to see if the author has any previous publications on the topic addressed in the current paper. If so, that could be an indication of the author's long term commitment to this research topic or question.

Length

Sometimes articles will be labeled in academic databases as "scholarly articles" even though they are only a couple of pages long. If your article seems rather short and does not follow the general structure of a scholarly article (Abstract, Literature Review, Methodology, Results, Discussion, Conclusions, List of Works Cited), then is it a relevant or credible source for the purposes of your assignment? Is there a more thorough or detailed source that you could use?

Date of Publication

How current is the article? If you are looking for a historical perspective on your topic, then an older article may be useful. But if you need current information and your article is 10 or 15 years old, is it as relevant and useful for your assignment?

A note on publication bias

You can find many articles indicating that a bias exists in academic publishing. This publication bias means that only certain types of research studies get published in academic journals. In the sciences, the publication bias favors studies that have positive results ("we got some results!") rather than negative results ("this did not work as we had hypothesized"). In the Arts and Humanities, some have argued that prestigious academic journals favor articles that come from professors at elite colleges and universities. Other speculation about publication bias in academic journals focuses on the bias in the peer reviewer: that a peer reviewer is more likely to accept an article for publication if that article confirms his or her own thinking.

Additional Reading on Evaluating Scholarly Sources

Joe Moxley's article "Questions to Evaluate the Authority of the Researcher's Methods," is an excellent resource for thinking about how to approach a critique of scholarly work. This article can be found by clicking on the hyperlink above and by going to directly to the Writing Commons website.

Keeping Track of Sources

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:06:48 +0000

Through the process of research, it is easy to get lost in a sea of information. Here are some tips and tools that you can use throughout the stages of your research process to keep sources organized. Always keep a working digital bibliography of the sources that you are considering or using. If you construct your Works Cited as you go along, you will save yourself a lot of time. As you find articles, keep them! Here are some ways that you can store articles that you find:

Create a Google Doc or a Word file to keep track of the sources that you want to read. Copy and paste the full citation (many databases, like Academic Search Complete, create a Works Cited reference for you). Or, if you are using a source that you found via google, copy and paste the URL of the source (it will need to be cited properly by author name, article title, source, etc. if you use it in a paper).
Import sources that you may want to use to Zotero, a free software tool that you can download to store, cite and organize potential sources.
If you are searching in Academic Search Complete, Create a "Folder" in Academic Search Complete to save the articles that look interesting
Emailing hyperlinks of web sources to yourself often seems like the easiest idea. However, be aware that if you email URLs of articles that you find in the library's research databases, they will not open if you are not logged in to CSU's library. Instead, email the citation (with article title, author name) to yourself so that you can go back and find the article later.
Print. If you find an article that you are fairly sure will be useful, go ahead and print it out. You may want to have a folder dedicated to your research project where you keep print outs of all the articles you plan to use. You will end up saving yourself time if you add the Works Cited info in with all of your other sources.

Synthesis and Literature Reviews

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:14:41 +0000

Why do we seek to understand the ways that authors or sources "converse" with one another? So that we can synthesize various perspectives on a topic to more deeply understand it. In academic writing, this understanding of the "conversation" may become the content of an explanatory synthesis paper - a paper in which you, the writer, point out various various themes or key points from a conversation on a particular topic. Or, another assignment that you may complete in college is a literature review, which applies your synthesis skills. Literature reviews are often found in the beginning of scholarly journal articles. Literature reviews synthesize previous research that has been done on a particular topic, summarizing important works in the history of research on that topic.

Literature reviews can be arranged by topic or theme, much like a traditional explanatory synthesis paper.
Literature reviews can also be arranged chronologically, according to various time periods of research on a topic (i.e., what was published ten years ago, five years ago, and within the last year, for example).
Finally, literature reviews can be arranged by discipline or field (i.e., what is the current research being done by biologists on this topic? What is the current research being done by psychologists on this topic? What is the current research being done by [insert academic discipline] on this topic?).

Just like in an explanatory synthesis paper, a Literature Review offers only a report on what others have already written about. The Literature Review does not reflect the author's own argument or contributions to the field of research. Instead, it indicates that the author has read others' important contributions and understands what has come before him or her. The Literature Review provides context for the author's own new research. It is the basis and background out of which the author's research grows. Context = credibility in academic writing. When authors have broad Literature Review, they demonstrate their credibility as researchers.

Coming Up With a Research Strategy: Using Wikipedia (!?)

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:06:08 +0000

You have chosen a topic. You have taken that topic and developed it into a research question or a hypothesis. Now it is time to begin your research. But before diving deep into google, it can be helpful to thinking about what kinds of information you want and/or need. A research strategy involves deciding what you need to know in order to answer your research question. What data do you need? What can different kinds of sources - popular or scholarly, primary/secondary/tertiary - offer you? Whose perspectives could help you to answer your research question? What kinds of professionals/scholars will be able to give you the information you seek? What kinds of keywords should you be using to get the information that you want?

It can be helpful to begin by getting comfortable with the basics. And Wikipedia, that place that we have all been told at one point or another to avoid, can be a great place to start.

Do you fully understand the history of your topic?
Do you understand the current situation/most recent information on your topic?
Do you know about key events that have shaped the controversy surrounding your topic?

This is where Wikipedia can actually be helpful. You can go to Wikipedia to get your bearings on your topic, to identify key terms, people, events, arguments or other elements that are essential to understanding your topic. Should you cite Wikipedia? NO. Should you be using it as a source? NO. But Wikipedia can give you some wonderful access to the basics surrounding your topic and help you to get started. [embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cql_yVUYj6A[/embed]

Wikipedia and Your Research Strategy

Visit the Wikipedia page for your research topic.

What key words did you find that you can use in further research?
What aspects of controversy surrounding your topic (people, events, dates, or other specifics) can you use in further research?
What sources (from the Wikipedia page's List of References) will you pursue and perhaps locate and read?

Book Information

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:47:15 +0000

Creative Commons Licensing

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 01:57:08 +0000

This book, English 102: Reading, Research and Writing, is licensed under a Creative Commons as CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0. by Emilie Zickel. It is an adaptation of About Writing: A Guide by Robin Jeffrey, which is licensed as CC-BY 4.0. You can link to Robin Jeffrey's original version of About Writing here. Cover image: "bright lightbulb" by Greg Borenstein Licensed under Creative Commons (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0). Accessed August 22, 2017. www.flickr.com

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

MLA Signal Phrases

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 02:16:33 +0000

Keep things interesting for your readers by switching up the language and placement of your signal phrases.

Model Phrases

In the words of professors Greer and Dewey, “…” As sociology scholar Janice Kinsey has noted, “…” Creative Commons, an organization that helps internet users understand and create copyright for materials, reports that “…” “…,” writes Deidre Tyrell, “…” “…,” attorney Sanderson claims. Kyles and Sanderson offer up a compelling point: “…”

Verbs

Acknowledges	Contends	Observes
Admits	Declares	Points out
Adds	Denies	Reasons
Agrees	Disputes	Refutes
Argues	Emphasizes	Rejects
Asserts	Endorses	Reports
Believes	Grants	Responds
Claims	Illustrates	Suggests
Comments	Implies	Thinks
Compares	Insists	Writes
Confirms	Notes

Pressbooks: Simple Book Production

Academic Discipline

jmyers — Wed, 26 Jul 2017 19:17:37 +0000

A field of study (we often call them "majors" or "minors"). Academic study, academic journals, and college departments are often organized around a single discipline, such as neuroscience, political science, biology, mechanical engineering, nursing, or English literature. There are often sub-specialties within these disciplines.

Synthesis

jmyers — Wed, 26 Jul 2017 19:22:50 +0000

The act of taking pieces or parts of several original sources and using them to form a new whole. In writing, this means drawing from several sources to create your own essay, one that either explains a concept (using perspectives and information from several different sources) or defends your own argument (using perspectives and information from several different sources).

Signal phrase

ezickel — Mon, 30 Nov -0001 00:00:00 +0000

A signal phrase signals to the reader of your paper that you will be including ideas from another person. Signal phrases are used to clearly differentiate between your thoughts and those of the authors who you quote, paraphrase or summarize. Example signal phrases: Jones states that... Miller argues that... According to the Pew Research Center, ...

Claim

ezickel — Tue, 22 Aug 2017 16:46:02 +0000

A claim is a type of argumentative thesis - we usually call it a claim when it is being used in a persuasive essay. Claims need to be defended by you with logical, persuasive reasoning. Claims can also be challenged. The most common types of claims are

claims of policy (we must do something!),
claims of value (this is good! or this is bad!),
claims of definition (this is what it is)
claims of cause/effect (X has caused Y or X will cause Y)

Expository Writing

ezickel — Tue, 22 Aug 2017 16:54:32 +0000

Also called explanatory writing. Expository writing is one of the most common types of writing, and you will be asked to create expository pieces of writing during your college career. When an author writes in an expository style, he or she is trying to explain a concept to an audience. Expository writing does not include the author’s opinions, but focuses on reporting, explaining, summarizing or otherwise objectively rendering a topic for a reader.

Persuasive Writing

ezickel — Tue, 22 Aug 2017 16:56:24 +0000

Persuasive writing is the main style of writing you will use in academic papers. When an author writes in a persuasive style, he or she is trying to convince the audience of a position or belief. Persuasive writing contains the author’s opinions and biases, as well as justifications and reasons given by the author as evidence of the correctness of their position. Any “argumentative” essay you write in school will be in the persuasive style of writing. Examples of expository writing include: Critiques or Reviews of articles/events Advertisements Letters to the editor Cover letters Argument essays Position papers

Popular Source

ezickel — Tue, 22 Aug 2017 19:28:10 +0000

Popular in this sense does not mean likable. Instead, when we say "popular source" the popular means "for the people". Popular sources are magazine, newspaper or website articles that are written for an audience of every day people. Sources that are scholarly are written for highly educated experts who are specialists within their field.

Scholarly Sources

ezickel — Tue, 22 Aug 2017 19:31:21 +0000

Scholarly is often used to signify academic, serious work. So a "Scholarly" source is an article, book or journal that is written by someone with a PhD or other terminal degree to other experts in that field. These scholarly sources are not written to make money or to entertain, as popular sources often are. Scholarly sources are meant to convey research findings and knowledge that the author has come to through his or her studies.

Peer Review

ezickel — Tue, 22 Aug 2017 19:37:54 +0000

In class peer review means you, and other students in your class, providing feedback to your fellow students on their drafts of various papers. Peer review as it relates to scholarly sources is something different. Scholarly peer review is part of the process of scholarly publication. When a scholar who has conducted his or her own research wants to convey that research in a published paper, he or she must first submit a draft of the paper to several other experts (people with PhDs) in that same field. Those peer reviewers are looking to see that the research question, the literature review, the study's methodology and the author's conclusions are sound and reasonable. If so, the peer reviewers will approve the paper for publication.

About this book

ezickel — Mon, 28 Aug 2017 01:57:21 +0000

This book is a remixed version of Robin Jeffrey's 2016 version of About Writing. It was created with support from the Cleveland State University Michael Schwartz Library's 2017 Textbook Affordability Small Grant. In this remixed version of Jeffrey's book, Emilie Zickel has rearranged the order of book sections, removed several chapters that are found in the original, and added content to each book section and each individual chapter. She has enhanced the digital reading experience by including videos and visual reading features. Finally, she has included several essays from the open source textbook series Writing Spaces: Readings on Writing, which can be found here, several links to articles from the open source website Writing Commons, which can be linked to here, and a chapter on Synthesis from Melanie Gagich's Introduction to Writing in College, which can be found here. Emilie Zickel is a Full Time Lecturer in First Year Writing at Cleveland State University. If you would like to contact her, she can be reached at e.zickel@csuohio.edu or at ezickel@gmail.com

Brainstorm for Coming Up With a Topic

ezickel — Fri, 01 Sep 2017 02:21:57 +0000

No idea where to start?

Which question(s) below interest you? Which question(s) below spark a desire to respond? A good topic is one that moves you to think, to do, to want to know more, to want to say more. See if any of these questions can lead you to a freewriting session where you simply try to get some thoughts down on paper.

What news stories do you often see and sort of follow, but want to know more about?
What (socio-political) argument do you often have with others that you would love to work on strengthening?
What would you love to become an expert on?
What are you passionate about?
What are you scared of?
What problem in the world needs to be solved?
What are the key controversies or current debates in the field of work that you want to go into?
What is a problem that you see at work that needs to be better publicized or understood?
What is the biggest issue facing [ specific group of people: by age, by race, by gender, by ethnicity, by nationality, by geography, by economic standing? choose a group]
If you could interview anyone in the world, who would it be? Can identifying that person lead you to a research topic that would be meaningful to you?
What area/landmark/piece of history in your home community are you interested in?
What in the world makes you angry?
What global problem do you want to better understand?
What local problem do you want to better understand?
Is there some element of the career that you would like to have one day that you want to better understand?
Consider researching the significance of a song, or an artist, or a musician, or a novel/film/short story/comic, or an art form on some aspect of the broader culture.
Think about something that has happened to (or is happening to) a friend or family member. Do you want to know more about this?
The New York Times' segment "Room for Debate" has many compelling and current questions, along with commentary from a variety of perspectives. Choose one of these questions to pursue?
Go to a news source (New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Christian Science Monitor, etc) and skim the titles of news stories. Does any story interest you?

There are many other ways to come up with a good topic. The best thing to do is to give yourself time to think about what you really want to commit days and weeks to reading, thinking, researching, more reading, writing, more researching, reading and writing on.

Coming Up with a Research Strategy: Types of Sources

ezickel — Sun, 03 Sep 2017 00:16:35 +0000

As you seek to find answers to your research question, think about the types of "voices" you need to hear from. Scientists/researchers who have conducted their own research studies? They can provide data. Scholars/thinkers/writers who have also looked at your topic and offered their own analyses on it? Journalists who are reporting on what they have observed? Journalists/newspaper or magazine authors who are providing their educated opinions on your topic? Personal stories of individuals who have lived through an event? Such stories offer raw, first hand evidence. Blog posts/tweets/other social media posts? Any of these (and more) could be useful in helping you to answer your research question. These sources can be categorized as popular, scholarly, primary, secondary or tertiary. The next two chapters will define what those types of sources are.

An Introduction to Academic Search Complete

ezickel — Sun, 03 Sep 2017 01:07:38 +0000

The video below offers a quick and basic overview of Academic Search Complete, the most basic database that you can use as you conduct college research. You can find popular and scholarly articles via Academic Search Complete. The video offers information on

Limiting your search results to only get peer reviewed (scholarly) articles
Limiting your search results to get articles that are accessible via download
How to refine your searches so that you get the information most relevant to your research project
How to refine search to specific dates
How to access articles that you find
What subject terms are, where they are, and how they can be useful to your research strategy
Where to find articles' abstracts

[embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d1d-_p1JI_Y&t=4s[/embed]

Basic Guidelines for Academic Research Database Searches

ezickel — Sun, 03 Sep 2017 01:15:14 +0000

Getting used to doing research in an academic database can be challenging. The guidelines offered in the video below apply most specifically to Academic Search Complete (also called EBSCO), but are relevant to any academic database. Key tips that the video will cover:

Why typing your whole research question into an academic database won't work well
How to use key words in an academic database
What "AND" or "OR" can do to help your search
How looking at the Subject Terms that are provided by the database can help you to refine your searches within that databse.

[embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=64&v=FF9uvjat1P0[/embed]

Fallacies: Failures in Argument

ezickel — Wed, 25 Oct 2017 01:34:07 +0000

Just because we use ethos, pathos and logos in an argument does not mean that the argument is necessarily sound. In academia, especially, we care a lot about making our arguments logically sound. We seek to avoid logical fallacies, which are flaws in our reasoning. Such logical fallacies are seen as failures in thinking - that which makes an argument a failure. Fallacy :: Falseness :: Incorrect :: Mistaken :: Problematic What makes thinking about fallacies confusing is that we see them all the time. In advertising, in conversation, in political discourse -- fallacies are everywhere. But as students of rhetoric (the art of persuasion), part of our job is to spend time identifying these fallacies, calling them what they are, and attempting to avoid them in our own reasoning.

Logical Fallacies - What to Avoid in our Arguments

This is merely a quick and easy list -- many, many more fallacies exist (sadly).

Generalization : A conclusion or judgement made from insufficient evidence. We call these "hasty generalizations" -- when one piece of evidence or information is used to make a broad conclusion or statement (or only one piece of evidence is used to support a reason).
Straw Man - An oversimplification of an opposing perspective so that it becomes easy to attack. This is unfair and illogical because when one oversimplifies or inaccurately represents an argument and refutes that oversimplified version, one is not actually addressing the argument.
Red Herring - Changing topics to avoid the point being discussed. A bait and switch. This is an argument tactic in which one attempts to change the conversation - bringing up information that is not relevant or the claim or point being debated - in order to try to control the conversation. This can be a way to avoid having to address or answer the question at hand - and it harms the quality of an argument.
Ad Hominem - "You are an idiot! That's why you're wrong!" This type of logical fallacy occurs when an arguer attacks or insults the person making opposing arguments instead of attacking the ideas, the logic or the evidence within the opposing argument itself. It is a personal attack rather than a way of engaging with someone's ideas.
Ad Populum - "This is about freedom and righteousness, and if you believe in those things, then you should believe my argument". This is an example of misused ethos - when the author is referencing the values that the audience cares about so that they think only about the values, not about the content of the argument (or, likely, the fact that there is little intellectual substance in what is being said).
Either/or - "Either we intervene or we are basically no better than the Nazis". This is an argument that attempts to create a situation of absolutes, with no options in between. This thinking is fallacious because it assumes that there are only two options, with nothing in between.
Slippery Slope: "If we let this happen, then that will happen and then the worst possible thing will happen". This is a fallacy that assumes that one thing is going to have a series of consequences or effects -- often leading to a worst case scenario. It is false reasoning because 1) it's impossible to predict the future, 2) it is illogical to suggest that one action will always necessarily lead to the worst possible outcome, and 3) it assumes a very specific chain of future events. This "if we let this happen there will be some horrible end" is misuse of cause/effect reasoning, often with some pathos (fear) sprinkled in.

Basic Argument Components

ezickel — Fri, 10 Nov 2017 00:35:08 +0000

Arguments are comprised of a few basic organizational elements. We can certainly describe arguments in a much more detailed manner than what follows, but this is offered as a very basic outline for the core components of any argument.

Argument

Claim: What do you want the reader to believe? The thesis in an argument paper is often called a claim. This is a statement of position, a thesis in which you take a stand on a controversial issue. A strong claim is one that has a valid counter-claim -- an opposite or alternative that is as sensible as the position that you take in your claim. Background: What background information about the topic does the reader need? Before you get into defending your claim, you may need to offer some context to your argument. Some of this context may be offered in your intro paragraph, but often there are other definitions, history about your topic or the controversy that surrounds it, or other elements of the argument's contextual that need additional space in your paper. This background can go after you state your claim. Reasons: Why should a reader accept your claim? To support your claim, you need a series of "sub-claims" or reasons. Like your claim, this is your thinking - your mini-argumentative points that support the core argumentative claim. This is NOT evidence. This is not data or statistics or quotes. A reason should be your idea that you use to support claim. We often say that three reasons - each distinct points - make for a well rounded argument structure.

Evidence: What makes your reasoning valid? To validate the thinking that you use in your reasons, you need to demonstrate that your reasons are not only based on your personal opinion. Evidence can come from research studies or scholarship, expert opinions, personal examples, observations made by yourself or others, or specific instances that make your reason seem sound and believable. Evidence only "works" if it directly supports your reason -- and sometimes you must explain how the evidence supports your reason (do not assume that a reader can see the connection between evidence and reason that you see).

Counterargument: But what about other perspectives? In a strong argument, you will not be afraid to consider perspectives that either challenge or completely oppose your own claim. In a counterargument, you may do any of the following (or some combination of them):

summarize opposing views
explain how and where you actually agree with some opposing views
acknowledge weaknesses or holes in your own argument

You have to be careful and clear that you are not conveying to a reader that you are rejecting your own claim; it is important to indicate that you are merely open to considering alternative viewpoints. Being open in this way shows that you are an ethical arguer - you are considering many viewpoints. Response to Counterargument: I see that, but... Just as it is important to include counterargument to show that you are fair-minded and balanced, you must respond to the counterargument that you include so that a reader clearly sees that you are not agreeing with the counterargument. Failure to include the response to counterargument can confuse the reader. **It is certainly possible to begin the argument section (meaning, after the Background section) with your counterargument + response instead of placing it at the end. Some people prefer to have their counterargument first; some prefer to have the counterargument + response right before the conclusion.

Failures in Evidence: When Even "Lots of Quotes" Can't Save an Argument

ezickel — Fri, 10 Nov 2017 15:37:26 +0000

In a strong argument, the author's own claim and reasoning drive the argument, and then credible, valid evidence is there to support that reasoning. Arguments are interactions between author and audience - the author wants to persuade the audience to accept his or her claim. Thus, there is a question and answer that is implicit in the author-audience relationship with argument - An author's claim should answer the question, "What are you, the author, trying to get me, the audience, to think about the topic?" An author's reasons should answer the question, "What reasoning supports supports your claim?" An author's evidence should answer the question, "How can you, author, show me, the reader, that your reasoning is valid?" Claims can be easy to come up with. Even reasons can be fairly easy to come up with. But for those reasons to be valid, for them to be accepted by a reader, they must be supported and developed with solid, credible, sufficient, accurate, relevant and compelling evidence. Let's look at failures in evidence, which is essentially when a reader says, "I do not accept your evidence". Here is why that might happen:

Evidence is inaccurate: You've misread information or misquoted; you are not interpreting the quoted material in an accurate manner
Evidence is insufficient: You are using just a small piece of evidence to support your reasoning. You need more. You probably have a "generalization" fallacy.
Evidence is unrelated to the reason: Your evidence does not clearly or directly relate to the point that you are trying to make.
Evidence is incomplete or too narrowly chosen: You have "cherry picked" certain examples or pieces of information to the exclusion of others, so while yo do have evidence to support your point, you are also neglecting a lot of other information
Evidence is old: The information that you are citing is not relevant anymore. It is outdated!
Evidence does not come from an authoritative source: The source of your evidence is not credible; the person being cited is not an authority on the topic

One of the bigger issues with evidence is not so much with the evidence itself, but with the way that you integrate it into the paper. A reader needs to understand clearly how and why the evidence you chose relates to the point that you are making. Whenever you integrate evidence into your papers, you it is important to answer the question "How does this evidence support the point that you are making?" -- never assume that the reader sees what you see in evidence. Always make it as clear as possible how the evidence supports the reason.

Authors

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:47:15 +0000

Cover

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:47:15 +0000

About

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:47:15 +0000

Buy

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:47:15 +0000

Access Denied

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 20:47:15 +0000

Composing

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 21:11:24 +0000

Academic Argument

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 21:12:10 +0000

Scholarly Sources

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 21:12:28 +0000

Citation, Quoting, Works Cited

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 21:12:38 +0000

Revising

ezickel — Wed, 21 Jun 2017 21:13:10 +0000

Glossary

jmyers — Wed, 26 Jul 2017 19:06:38 +0000

Glossary

jmyers — Wed, 26 Jul 2017 19:14:27 +0000

Glossary

jmyers — Wed, 26 Jul 2017 19:15:15 +0000

Synthesis

ezickel — Mon, 14 Aug 2017 13:21:25 +0000

Reading and Evaluating Sources

ezickel — Thu, 24 Aug 2017 02:41:16 +0000

The Research Process

ezickel — Sun, 27 Aug 2017 02:14:19 +0000