{"id":138,"date":"2023-05-06T02:26:18","date_gmt":"2023-05-06T02:26:18","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/historicalstudiessp2023\/?post_type=chapter&p=138"},"modified":"2023-05-06T04:03:33","modified_gmt":"2023-05-06T04:03:33","slug":"diplomatic-history-propaganda-donna-landis","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/historicalstudiessp2023\/chapter\/diplomatic-history-propaganda-donna-landis\/","title":{"rendered":"Diplomatic History: Propaganda Donna Landis"},"content":{"raw":"Diplomatic history\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \"\"\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n\r\nDefinition: <\/strong>According to the Huygens Institute diplomatic history, \"aims to piece together the decision-making processes of policy-makers, thereby reconstructing the reality (or \u2018truth\u2019) of statecraft\"24 <\/sup>\u00a0Diplomatic history is separate from international relations. Both international relations and diplomatic history look at the complex ties between nations. 23<\/sup> There are two differences, the first being diplomatic history deals more with trying to gather facts while international relations deals more with creating theories. 23 <\/sup>The second distinction between the two disciplines is international relations is irrelevant if it is not current and up to date while diplomatic history does not need to study current events to be relevant.23\u00a0<\/sup> For most of its history diplomatic history has used a very diplomatics (the study of documents, records and archives) methodology, looking at prim\r\n\r\nary official government documents and treaties for most of its source material but that has been slowly changing over the years.<\/span>6<\/sup>With the end of the Cold War and the increase in non-government players many diplomatic historians are starting to adopt the strategies of other houses of history.<\/span>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nInfluenced by Empiricists <\/strong>\r\n\r\nThe term diploma is tied to official documents, with\u00a0<\/em>diplo<\/em> meaning 'folded in two' and '\u00a0ma<\/em> ' meaning an object.2<\/sup> As the increase of official international agreements grew so did the need for someone to sort, organize and preserve these documents.2<\/sup> These documents that were preserved became the main source of information for Leopold Van Ranke. Ranke believed in using primary sources for historical analysis\u00a03<\/sup> and the documents that were preserved in the Venetian archives, and the reports from ambassadors were the cornerstone of his work.4<\/sup> Ranke believed in \u201cthe prim\r\n\r\nacy of foreign policy\u201d<\/span>5<\/sup> or the principle that the policies that governments enact with other governments will influence its domestic policy.<\/span>5<\/sup>\r\n\r\nGovernment Documents<\/strong>\r\n\r\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>As the politics of the 19th and 20th century developed so did diplomatic history. With the further development of society, the increase of rights and enfranchisement of the public, European governments wanted to justify their foreign policies.6<\/sup>\u00a0Governments started publishing their diplomatic correspondence, adding more fuel for diplomatic historians to use.6<\/sup>\u00a0The curiosity of the public in the affairs of statesmen and questions about how the country got to its present state made diplomatic history increase in popularity.6<\/sup> This popularity was further increased in the beginning of the 20th century.\r\n\r\nWW1<\/strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_428\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]\"\" Copyright: \u00a9 IWM. Original Source: http:\/\/www.iwm.org.uk\/collections\/item\/object\/205218801[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWorld War one caused the greatest changes in geopolitics in the 20th century. It caused the fall of four European empires and the destabilization of Europe that caused World War two.8<\/sup> Part of the cause of World War one was the complex alliances that were formed.8<\/sup>\u00a0 \u00a0The question of how the alliances failed to keep Europe out of conflict was asked by diplomatic historians to find the best way to keep peace.6<\/sup>\u00a0The idea that you can use \u00a0history as a tool of peace influenced a lot of diplomatic historians. Most notably diplomatic historian Sir Charles Kingsley Webster, a history professor at Harvard10<\/sup> and attendee of the Versailles conference11<\/sup> , who\u2019s knowledge of history played a key role in helping to plan the United Nations.11<\/sup>\r\n\r\nUnfortunately, diplomatic history was not only a tool used for peace after World War one it caused debates and academic conflict. While most diplomatic historians at the time wanted to keep to the principles of empiricism some were influenced by the politics of the time.6<\/sup> Finding out \u201cwho was to blame\u201d for the start of World War one became an academic question that was for the most part answered by nationalism.12<\/sup>\u00a0 \u00a0This led to countries to publish archival materials to support their side with Germans dema\r\n\r\nnding a revision of the Treaty of Versailles.<\/span>6<\/sup>\r\n\r\nOutdated<\/strong>\r\n\r\nAfter World War Two Marxism and social history became popular.\u00a06<\/sup>\u00a0There was a movement away from studying the decisions of the upper class and their became more of a focus towards working class people.6<\/sup>The end of World War two not only brought on the rise of Marxism and the study of working class people but the study of nations histories away from colonialism and the study of gender. 3<\/sup>This change in focus was the opposite of what diplomatic history was studying. Unlike Marxism and social history, diplomatic history looked at the decisions of the elites and unlike post colonialists and gender studies diplomatic history looked at the decisions of men in mostly powerful colonizing countries. 6<\/sup>There was also a difference in what sources were preferred, diplomatic history used almost exclusively government documents found in archives whereas the other houses used personal documents, art and even oral histories. This made diplomatic history seem outdated and out of touch.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_423\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"249\"]\"Gordan Gordan A. Craig[\/caption]\r\n\r\nNew Diplomatic History<\/strong>\r\n\r\nDiplomatic history took a long time to adopt the strategies of other houses of history. It was not until the 1980s that a call for a change in diplomatic history was made. Gordon A. Craig, a diplomatic historian, and a history professor at Stanford, wanted diplomatic history to investigate the effects politics, social customs, public attitudes had on negotiation. 13 <\/sup>He wanted diplomatic historians to see that diplomats were not always influenced by what was best for their country but that they were human and had human influences.13<\/sup> New diplomatic history looks at unofficial diplomats and non-state actors like NGOs asking the question of who is considered a diplomat?14<\/sup>\r\n\r\nPublic diplomacy and Propaganda<\/strong>\r\n\r\nA newer subsection of diplomatic history is the history of \u00a0\u201cpublic diplomacy\u201d, the name was repurposed by U.S. diplomat Edmund Gullion to distance the U.S government\u2019s actions away from the word \u201cpropaganda\u201d.15<\/sup>\u00a0 Original use of the phrase was to describe new diplomatic actions that were taking place during World War One.17<\/sup> It was one of the first times that public statements were being made about diplomatic affairs like public calls for peace.17<\/sup> Woodrow Wilson used the phrase \u201cpublic diplomacy\u201d to refer to more public discussion of international affairs in his fourteen points, advocating for the people to know about the diplomatic affairs of their nation.17<\/sup>\u00a0 According to the Center on Public Diplomacy, public diplomacy is seen now as the, \u201cmeans by which a sovereign country communicates with publics in other countries aimed at informing and influencing audiences overseas for the purpose of promoting the national interest and advancing its foreign policy goals.\u201d15<\/sup>\r\n\r\nOne of public diplomacy\u2019s core concepts is known as \u201csoft power\u201d. Soft power, according to Joseph Nye is, influence using cultural assets, political ideals, and policies instead of coercion or payments.15<\/sup>\u00a0 \u201cSoft power\u201d has two \u00a0categories, the first is cultural communication, where the goal is to foster a better image for the country without a set goal.16<\/sup> The result of cultural communication is more long term.16<\/sup> The second category of \u201csoft power\u201d is political advocacy where a nation tries to build support in another nation for a specific policy, the goal is to achieve short term action.16<\/sup>\r\n\r\nPublic Diplomatic History: Just the Beginning<\/strong>\r\n\r\nThe study of public diplomatic history is extremely recent. The Cold War was one of the first times that nations started to actively use \u201csoft power\" as a strategy to convince the public of other nations of their cause.20<\/sup> What is important to note is that propaganda has been used for centuries as a way for nations to motivate their own people, this was one of the first times that it was used to motivate people outside of the nation. The reason why nations were involved in the Cold War, sometimes referred to as \u201cThe Propaganda War\u201d, was that it was the start of using the threat of nuclear war as a tactic and open war would have caused the complete destruction of both nations.19<\/sup> The United States specifically used public diplomacy on people from neutral nations and allies in order gain support for their cause.18<\/sup> The cold war ended in 1991 and it took both communist countries and the United States a few years to release their archives.6<\/sup> A few books published on the public diplomacy of the cold war was published in the early 2000s by diplomatic historians. \u00a0An increase in interest of propaganda and how it influenced history happened right after 9\/11.15<\/sup> The new ways for the public to receive information and news gave more power to organizations and people outside of governments, making the need to study propaganda and its influence on other nations more important.15<\/sup> The USC center for Public Diplomacy, founded in 2003, is currently the leading pioneer in public diplomacy and became the world\u2019s first college to offer a master\u2019s degree in public diplomacy in 2005.21<\/sup>\r\n\r\nNicholas J. Cull<\/strong>\r\n\r\n\"Nicholas<\/strong>\r\n\r\nNicolas J. Cull is the leading historian and pioneer in the study of diplomatic history.21<\/sup> He is currently a professor at the University of Southern California at the Center on Public Diplomacy.21 He was the founding director of the master\u2019s program in Public Diplomacy.21<\/sup> Cull published eight books including his first, \u201cSelling War: The British Propaganda Campaign Against American \u201cNeutrality\u201d in World War II\u201d.<\/em>21<\/sup><\/em>\u00a0 Cull embodies the principles of a diplomatic historian and a public diplomacy historian. His work \u201cThe Cold War and the United States Information Agency\u201d is a great example of a Public Diplomatic history. According to Emily Rosenburg, \u201cCull presents the first comprehensive history and assessment of the varied elements that comprised the USIA\u2019s mission to tell \u2018America\u2019s story to the world\u2019.\u201d25<\/sup> He uses a more traditional diplomatics method by looking at declassified archives and he interviewed over 100 people who were involved in the public diplomacy programs.26<\/sup> He also used a newer public diplomacy lens for his interpretation, he asked questions about journalistic truth and the struggle between politicians and a state run international radio station.26\u00a0<\/sup>27<\/sup>\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n

Works Cited<\/p>\r\n2 <\/sup>Ruey, Tethloach. \u201cHistory.\u201d Diplomatic World Institute , February 28, 2023. https:\/\/www.diplomatic-world-institute.com\/en\/history\/#:~:text=The word 'diplomacy' originated from,together in a particular manner.\r\n\r\n3 \"<\/sup>Empiricism, Gender and History and Postcolonial Perspectives.\u201d Essay. In Houses of History<\/i>, 1\u2013277. New York: New York State Radio Bureau, 1948.\r\n\r\n4<\/sup>Ranke, Leopold. \u201cThe Theory and Practice of History Pg.xix.\u201d Edited by Georg Iggers. Google Books. Google, 1973. https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?hl=en&lr=&id=GjRZBwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=leopold+von+ranke+vetitian+archives&ots=4dW9aS_lBf&sig=CJ7bSoxKg90HtHpQ9GdaCAqUaYo#v=snippet&q=diplomatic&f=false.\r\n\r\n5\u00a0<\/sup>Mulligan, William. Essay. In The Primacy of Foreign Policy in British History, 1660-2000: How Strategic Concerns Shaped Modern Britain<\/i>, 121\u201321. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.\r\n\r\n6\u00a0\u00a0<\/sup>Finney, Patrick. \u201cInternational History.\u201d International History - Articles - Making History, 2008. https:\/\/archives.history.ac.uk\/makinghistory\/resources\/articles\/international_history.html#2.\r\n\r\n8\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cCauses and Effects of World War I.\u201d Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, inc. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/Causes-and-Effects-of-World-War-I.\r\n\r\n9<\/sup>Ehrhardt, Andrew. \u201cA \u2018Great Power\u2019 Man or World Stater? the International Thought of Charles Kingsley Webster, 1886\u20131961: Modern Intellectual History.\u201d Cambridge Core. Cambridge University Press, April 26, 2023. https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/journals\/modern-intellectual-history\/article\/abs\/great-power-man-or-world-stater-the-international-thought-of-charles-kingsley-webster-18861961\/CF24B074487FA6C5375E95C7DF2475F0.\r\n\r\n10<\/sup>\u201cCharles Kingsley Webster: News: The Harvard Crimson.\u201d News | The Harvard Crimson. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.thecrimson.com\/article\/1932\/3\/26\/charles-kingsley-webster-pthe-calling-of\/.\r\n\r\n11\u00a0<\/sup>Hall, Ian. \u201cThe Art and Practice of a Diplomatic Historian: Sir Charles Webster ...\u201d Research Gate. Accessed May 6, 2023. https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/248876334_The_Art_and_Practice_of_a_Diplomatic_Historian_Sir_Charles_Webster_1886-1961.<\/sup>\r\n\r\n12\u00a0<\/sup>Fry, Micheal, and Andrew Williams. \u201cDIPLOMATIC, INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL -WORLD HISTORY.\u201d International relations, n.d. http:\/\/www.eolss.net\/sample-chapters\/c14\/e1-35-01-04.pdf.<\/span>\r\n<\/sup>\r\n\r\n13\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cGordon A. Craig: AHA.\u201d Gordon A. Craig | AHA. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.historians.org\/about-aha-and-membership\/aha-history-and-archives\/presidential-addresses\/gordon-a-craig.\r\n\r\n14\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cNew Diplomatic History.\u201d Humanities and Social Sciences Online. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/networks.h-net.org\/tags\/new-diplomatic-history.\r\n\r\n15\u00a0<\/sup>https:\/\/uscpublicdiplomacy.org\/page\/what-is-pd#:~:text=As%20coined%20in%20the%20mid,which%20had%20acquired%20pejorative%20connotations.\r\n\r\n16\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cPublic Diplomacy.\u201d Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, inc. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/public-diplomacy.\r\n\r\n17\u00a0<\/sup>Cull, Nicholas. \u201c\u2018Public Diplomacy\u2019 before Gullion: The Evolution of a Phrase.\u201d USC Center on Public Diplomacy, November 4, 2016. https:\/\/uscpublicdiplomacy.org\/blog\/public-diplomacy-gullion-evolution-phrase.\r\n\r\n18\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cPropaganda - Cold War.\u201d Encyclopedia of the New American Nation. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.americanforeignrelations.com\/O-W\/Propaganda-Cold-war.html.\r\n\r\n19\u00a0<\/sup>https:\/\/link.springer.com\/chapter\/10.1007\/978-1-349-10433-8_9\r\n\r\n20\u00a0<\/sup>authors, All, Helmer Helmers \u2018Transnational Publicity in Early Modern Europe.\u2019 \u201cPublic Diplomacy in Early Modern Europe.\u201d Taylor & Francis. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/13688804.2016.1174570.\r\n\r\n21<\/sup>\u201cHistory and Mission.\u201d USC Center on Public Diplomacy, September 25, 2018. https:\/\/uscpublicdiplomacy.org\/page\/history-and-mission.\r\n\r\n22\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cNICHOLAS_CULL.\u201d USC Center on Public Diplomacy. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/uscpublicdiplomacy.org\/users\/nicholas_cull.\r\n\r\n23<\/sup>\u201cDiplomatic History and Colin Elman and - Jstor Home.\u201d Accessed May 6, 2023. https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/2539324.\r\n\r\n24\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cCall for Papers: Reframing Diplomacy: New Diplomatic History in the Benelux and Beyond.\u201d Call for Papers: Reframing Diplomacy: New Diplomatic History in the Benelux and Beyond | Historici.nl. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.historici.nl\/call-for-papers-reframing-diplomacy-new-diplomatic-history-in-the-benelux-and-beyond\/?type=call+for+papers.\r\n\r\n25\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cCPD University Fellow Nick Cull Pens New Book on Cold War Public Diplomacy.\u201d USC Center on Public Diplomacy, November 5, 2016. https:\/\/uscpublicdiplomacy.org\/story\/cpd-university-fellow-nick-cull-pens-new-book-cold-war-public-diplomacy.\r\n\r\n26<\/sup>Gregory, Bruce. \u201cThe Cold War and the United States Information ... - Naval War College.\u201d The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 2009. https:\/\/digital-commons.usnwc.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1783&context=nwc-review.\r\n\r\n27\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cHistory of VOA.\u201d VOA. Accessed May 6, 2023. https:\/\/www.insidevoa.com\/p\/5829.html#:~:text=The%20Voice%20of%20America%20(VOA,media%2C%20radio%2C%20and%20television.\r\n

<\/div>\r\n \r\n

Images Cited (In order)<\/p>\r\nPhotograph. 2013. Call for Papers: Reframing Diplomacy: New Diplomatic History in the Benelux and Beyond<\/i>. https:\/\/www.historici.nl\/call-for-papers-reframing-diplomacy-new-diplomatic-history-in-the-benelux-and-beyond\/?type=call%20for%20papers.\r\n\r\nPhotograph. n.d. IWM<\/i>. Imperial War Museum . https:\/\/www.iwm.org.uk\/collections\/item\/object\/205331698.\r\n\r\nProf. Dr. Gordon Craig Historiker<\/i>. May 27, 1991. Photograph. Gordan A Craig<\/i>. German Federal Archive . https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gordon_A._Craig.\r\n\r\nNicholas Cull<\/i>. n.d. Photograph. Nicholas Cull- Press Room USC<\/i>. https:\/\/pressroom.usc.edu\/nicholas-cull\/.\r\n

<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n ","rendered":"

Diplomatic history\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \"\"\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

Definition: <\/strong>According to the Huygens Institute diplomatic history, “aims to piece together the decision-making processes of policy-makers, thereby reconstructing the reality (or \u2018truth\u2019) of statecraft”24 <\/sup>\u00a0Diplomatic history is separate from international relations. Both international relations and diplomatic history look at the complex ties between nations. 23<\/sup> There are two differences, the first being diplomatic history deals more with trying to gather facts while international relations deals more with creating theories. 23 <\/sup>The second distinction between the two disciplines is international relations is irrelevant if it is not current and up to date while diplomatic history does not need to study current events to be relevant.23\u00a0<\/sup> For most of its history diplomatic history has used a very diplomatics (the study of documents, records and archives) methodology, looking at prim<\/p>\n

ary official government documents and treaties for most of its source material but that has been slowly changing over the years.<\/span>6<\/sup>With the end of the Cold War and the increase in non-government players many diplomatic historians are starting to adopt the strategies of other houses of history.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Influenced by Empiricists <\/strong><\/p>\n

The term diploma is tied to official documents, with\u00a0<\/em>diplo<\/em> meaning ‘folded in two’ and ‘\u00a0ma<\/em> ‘ meaning an object.2<\/sup> As the increase of official international agreements grew so did the need for someone to sort, organize and preserve these documents.2<\/sup> These documents that were preserved became the main source of information for Leopold Van Ranke. Ranke believed in using primary sources for historical analysis\u00a03<\/sup> and the documents that were preserved in the Venetian archives, and the reports from ambassadors were the cornerstone of his work.4<\/sup> Ranke believed in \u201cthe prim<\/p>\n

acy of foreign policy\u201d<\/span>5<\/sup> or the principle that the policies that governments enact with other governments will influence its domestic policy.<\/span>5<\/sup><\/p>\n

Government Documents<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/strong>As the politics of the 19th and 20th century developed so did diplomatic history. With the further development of society, the increase of rights and enfranchisement of the public, European governments wanted to justify their foreign policies.6<\/sup>\u00a0Governments started publishing their diplomatic correspondence, adding more fuel for diplomatic historians to use.6<\/sup>\u00a0The curiosity of the public in the affairs of statesmen and questions about how the country got to its present state made diplomatic history increase in popularity.6<\/sup> This popularity was further increased in the beginning of the 20th century.<\/p>\n

WW1<\/strong>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

\"\"
Copyright: \u00a9 IWM. Original Source: http:\/\/www.iwm.org.uk\/collections\/item\/object\/205218801<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

World War one caused the greatest changes in geopolitics in the 20th century. It caused the fall of four European empires and the destabilization of Europe that caused World War two.8<\/sup> Part of the cause of World War one was the complex alliances that were formed.8<\/sup>\u00a0 \u00a0The question of how the alliances failed to keep Europe out of conflict was asked by diplomatic historians to find the best way to keep peace.6<\/sup>\u00a0The idea that you can use \u00a0history as a tool of peace influenced a lot of diplomatic historians. Most notably diplomatic historian Sir Charles Kingsley Webster, a history professor at Harvard10<\/sup> and attendee of the Versailles conference11<\/sup> , who\u2019s knowledge of history played a key role in helping to plan the United Nations.11<\/sup><\/p>\n

Unfortunately, diplomatic history was not only a tool used for peace after World War one it caused debates and academic conflict. While most diplomatic historians at the time wanted to keep to the principles of empiricism some were influenced by the politics of the time.6<\/sup> Finding out \u201cwho was to blame\u201d for the start of World War one became an academic question that was for the most part answered by nationalism.12<\/sup>\u00a0 \u00a0This led to countries to publish archival materials to support their side with Germans dema<\/p>\n

nding a revision of the Treaty of Versailles.<\/span>6<\/sup><\/p>\n

Outdated<\/strong><\/p>\n

After World War Two Marxism and social history became popular.\u00a06<\/sup>\u00a0There was a movement away from studying the decisions of the upper class and their became more of a focus towards working class people.6<\/sup>The end of World War two not only brought on the rise of Marxism and the study of working class people but the study of nations histories away from colonialism and the study of gender. 3<\/sup>This change in focus was the opposite of what diplomatic history was studying. Unlike Marxism and social history, diplomatic history looked at the decisions of the elites and unlike post colonialists and gender studies diplomatic history looked at the decisions of men in mostly powerful colonizing countries. 6<\/sup>There was also a difference in what sources were preferred, diplomatic history used almost exclusively government documents found in archives whereas the other houses used personal documents, art and even oral histories. This made diplomatic history seem outdated and out of touch.<\/p>\n

\"Gordan
Gordan A. Craig<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

New Diplomatic History<\/strong><\/p>\n

Diplomatic history took a long time to adopt the strategies of other houses of history. It was not until the 1980s that a call for a change in diplomatic history was made. Gordon A. Craig, a diplomatic historian, and a history professor at Stanford, wanted diplomatic history to investigate the effects politics, social customs, public attitudes had on negotiation. 13 <\/sup>He wanted diplomatic historians to see that diplomats were not always influenced by what was best for their country but that they were human and had human influences.13<\/sup> New diplomatic history looks at unofficial diplomats and non-state actors like NGOs asking the question of who is considered a diplomat?14<\/sup><\/p>\n

Public diplomacy and Propaganda<\/strong><\/p>\n

A newer subsection of diplomatic history is the history of \u00a0\u201cpublic diplomacy\u201d, the name was repurposed by U.S. diplomat Edmund Gullion to distance the U.S government\u2019s actions away from the word \u201cpropaganda\u201d.15<\/sup>\u00a0 Original use of the phrase was to describe new diplomatic actions that were taking place during World War One.17<\/sup> It was one of the first times that public statements were being made about diplomatic affairs like public calls for peace.17<\/sup> Woodrow Wilson used the phrase \u201cpublic diplomacy\u201d to refer to more public discussion of international affairs in his fourteen points, advocating for the people to know about the diplomatic affairs of their nation.17<\/sup>\u00a0 According to the Center on Public Diplomacy, public diplomacy is seen now as the, \u201cmeans by which a sovereign country communicates with publics in other countries aimed at informing and influencing audiences overseas for the purpose of promoting the national interest and advancing its foreign policy goals.\u201d15<\/sup><\/p>\n

One of public diplomacy\u2019s core concepts is known as \u201csoft power\u201d. Soft power, according to Joseph Nye is, influence using cultural assets, political ideals, and policies instead of coercion or payments.15<\/sup>\u00a0 \u201cSoft power\u201d has two \u00a0categories, the first is cultural communication, where the goal is to foster a better image for the country without a set goal.16<\/sup> The result of cultural communication is more long term.16<\/sup> The second category of \u201csoft power\u201d is political advocacy where a nation tries to build support in another nation for a specific policy, the goal is to achieve short term action.16<\/sup><\/p>\n

Public Diplomatic History: Just the Beginning<\/strong><\/p>\n

The study of public diplomatic history is extremely recent. The Cold War was one of the first times that nations started to actively use \u201csoft power” as a strategy to convince the public of other nations of their cause.20<\/sup> What is important to note is that propaganda has been used for centuries as a way for nations to motivate their own people, this was one of the first times that it was used to motivate people outside of the nation. The reason why nations were involved in the Cold War, sometimes referred to as \u201cThe Propaganda War\u201d, was that it was the start of using the threat of nuclear war as a tactic and open war would have caused the complete destruction of both nations.19<\/sup> The United States specifically used public diplomacy on people from neutral nations and allies in order gain support for their cause.18<\/sup> The cold war ended in 1991 and it took both communist countries and the United States a few years to release their archives.6<\/sup> A few books published on the public diplomacy of the cold war was published in the early 2000s by diplomatic historians. \u00a0An increase in interest of propaganda and how it influenced history happened right after 9\/11.15<\/sup> The new ways for the public to receive information and news gave more power to organizations and people outside of governments, making the need to study propaganda and its influence on other nations more important.15<\/sup> The USC center for Public Diplomacy, founded in 2003, is currently the leading pioneer in public diplomacy and became the world\u2019s first college to offer a master\u2019s degree in public diplomacy in 2005.21<\/sup><\/p>\n

Nicholas J. Cull<\/strong><\/p>\n

\"Nicholas<\/strong><\/p>\n

Nicolas J. Cull is the leading historian and pioneer in the study of diplomatic history.21<\/sup> He is currently a professor at the University of Southern California at the Center on Public Diplomacy.21 He was the founding director of the master\u2019s program in Public Diplomacy.21<\/sup> Cull published eight books including his first, \u201cSelling War: The British Propaganda Campaign Against American \u201cNeutrality\u201d in World War II\u201d.<\/em>21<\/sup><\/em>\u00a0 Cull embodies the principles of a diplomatic historian and a public diplomacy historian. His work \u201cThe Cold War and the United States Information Agency\u201d is a great example of a Public Diplomatic history. According to Emily Rosenburg, \u201cCull presents the first comprehensive history and assessment of the varied elements that comprised the USIA\u2019s mission to tell \u2018America\u2019s story to the world\u2019.\u201d25<\/sup> He uses a more traditional diplomatics method by looking at declassified archives and he interviewed over 100 people who were involved in the public diplomacy programs.26<\/sup> He also used a newer public diplomacy lens for his interpretation, he asked questions about journalistic truth and the struggle between politicians and a state run international radio station.26\u00a0<\/sup>27<\/sup><\/p>\n

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Works Cited<\/p>\n

2 <\/sup>Ruey, Tethloach. \u201cHistory.\u201d Diplomatic World Institute , February 28, 2023. https:\/\/www.diplomatic-world-institute.com\/en\/history\/#:~:text=The word ‘diplomacy’ originated from,together in a particular manner.<\/p>\n

3 “<\/sup>Empiricism, Gender and History and Postcolonial Perspectives.\u201d Essay. In Houses of History<\/i>, 1\u2013277. New York: New York State Radio Bureau, 1948.<\/p>\n

4<\/sup>Ranke, Leopold. \u201cThe Theory and Practice of History Pg.xix.\u201d Edited by Georg Iggers. Google Books. Google, 1973. https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?hl=en&lr=&id=GjRZBwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=leopold+von+ranke+vetitian+archives&ots=4dW9aS_lBf&sig=CJ7bSoxKg90HtHpQ9GdaCAqUaYo#v=snippet&q=diplomatic&f=false.<\/p>\n

5\u00a0<\/sup>Mulligan, William. Essay. In The Primacy of Foreign Policy in British History, 1660-2000: How Strategic Concerns Shaped Modern Britain<\/i>, 121\u201321. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.<\/p>\n

6\u00a0\u00a0<\/sup>Finney, Patrick. \u201cInternational History.\u201d International History – Articles – Making History, 2008. https:\/\/archives.history.ac.uk\/makinghistory\/resources\/articles\/international_history.html#2.<\/p>\n

8\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cCauses and Effects of World War I.\u201d Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, inc. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/summary\/Causes-and-Effects-of-World-War-I.<\/p>\n

9<\/sup>Ehrhardt, Andrew. \u201cA \u2018Great Power\u2019 Man or World Stater? the International Thought of Charles Kingsley Webster, 1886\u20131961: Modern Intellectual History.\u201d Cambridge Core. Cambridge University Press, April 26, 2023. https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/journals\/modern-intellectual-history\/article\/abs\/great-power-man-or-world-stater-the-international-thought-of-charles-kingsley-webster-18861961\/CF24B074487FA6C5375E95C7DF2475F0.<\/p>\n

10<\/sup>\u201cCharles Kingsley Webster: News: The Harvard Crimson.\u201d News | The Harvard Crimson. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.thecrimson.com\/article\/1932\/3\/26\/charles-kingsley-webster-pthe-calling-of\/.<\/p>\n

11\u00a0<\/sup>Hall, Ian. \u201cThe Art and Practice of a Diplomatic Historian: Sir Charles Webster …\u201d Research Gate. Accessed May 6, 2023. https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/248876334_The_Art_and_Practice_of_a_Diplomatic_Historian_Sir_Charles_Webster_1886-1961.<\/sup><\/p>\n

12\u00a0<\/sup>Fry, Micheal, and Andrew Williams. \u201cDIPLOMATIC, INTERNATIONAL AND GLOBAL -WORLD HISTORY.\u201d International relations, n.d. http:\/\/www.eolss.net\/sample-chapters\/c14\/e1-35-01-04.pdf.<\/span>
\n<\/sup><\/p>\n

13\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cGordon A. Craig: AHA.\u201d Gordon A. Craig | AHA. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.historians.org\/about-aha-and-membership\/aha-history-and-archives\/presidential-addresses\/gordon-a-craig.<\/p>\n

14\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cNew Diplomatic History.\u201d Humanities and Social Sciences Online. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/networks.h-net.org\/tags\/new-diplomatic-history.<\/p>\n

15\u00a0<\/sup>https:\/\/uscpublicdiplomacy.org\/page\/what-is-pd#:~:text=As%20coined%20in%20the%20mid,which%20had%20acquired%20pejorative%20connotations.<\/p>\n

16\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cPublic Diplomacy.\u201d Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, inc. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/public-diplomacy.<\/p>\n

17\u00a0<\/sup>Cull, Nicholas. \u201c\u2018Public Diplomacy\u2019 before Gullion: The Evolution of a Phrase.\u201d USC Center on Public Diplomacy, November 4, 2016. https:\/\/uscpublicdiplomacy.org\/blog\/public-diplomacy-gullion-evolution-phrase.<\/p>\n

18\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cPropaganda – Cold War.\u201d Encyclopedia of the New American Nation. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.americanforeignrelations.com\/O-W\/Propaganda-Cold-war.html.<\/p>\n

19\u00a0<\/sup>https:\/\/link.springer.com\/chapter\/10.1007\/978-1-349-10433-8_9<\/p>\n

20\u00a0<\/sup>authors, All, Helmer Helmers \u2018Transnational Publicity in Early Modern Europe.\u2019 \u201cPublic Diplomacy in Early Modern Europe.\u201d Taylor & Francis. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/13688804.2016.1174570.<\/p>\n

21<\/sup>\u201cHistory and Mission.\u201d USC Center on Public Diplomacy, September 25, 2018. https:\/\/uscpublicdiplomacy.org\/page\/history-and-mission.<\/p>\n

22\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cNICHOLAS_CULL.\u201d USC Center on Public Diplomacy. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/uscpublicdiplomacy.org\/users\/nicholas_cull.<\/p>\n

23<\/sup>\u201cDiplomatic History and Colin Elman and – Jstor Home.\u201d Accessed May 6, 2023. https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/2539324.<\/p>\n

24\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cCall for Papers: Reframing Diplomacy: New Diplomatic History in the Benelux and Beyond.\u201d Call for Papers: Reframing Diplomacy: New Diplomatic History in the Benelux and Beyond | Historici.nl. Accessed May 5, 2023. https:\/\/www.historici.nl\/call-for-papers-reframing-diplomacy-new-diplomatic-history-in-the-benelux-and-beyond\/?type=call+for+papers.<\/p>\n

25\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cCPD University Fellow Nick Cull Pens New Book on Cold War Public Diplomacy.\u201d USC Center on Public Diplomacy, November 5, 2016. https:\/\/uscpublicdiplomacy.org\/story\/cpd-university-fellow-nick-cull-pens-new-book-cold-war-public-diplomacy.<\/p>\n

26<\/sup>Gregory, Bruce. \u201cThe Cold War and the United States Information … – Naval War College.\u201d The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 2009. https:\/\/digital-commons.usnwc.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1783&context=nwc-review.<\/p>\n

27\u00a0<\/sup>\u201cHistory of VOA.\u201d VOA. Accessed May 6, 2023. https:\/\/www.insidevoa.com\/p\/5829.html#:~:text=The%20Voice%20of%20America%20(VOA,media%2C%20radio%2C%20and%20television.<\/p>\n

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Images Cited (In order)<\/p>\n

Photograph. 2013. Call for Papers: Reframing Diplomacy: New Diplomatic History in the Benelux and Beyond<\/i>. https:\/\/www.historici.nl\/call-for-papers-reframing-diplomacy-new-diplomatic-history-in-the-benelux-and-beyond\/?type=call%20for%20papers.<\/p>\n

Photograph. n.d. IWM<\/i>. Imperial War Museum . https:\/\/www.iwm.org.uk\/collections\/item\/object\/205331698.<\/p>\n

Prof. Dr. Gordon Craig Historiker<\/i>. May 27, 1991. Photograph. Gordan A Craig<\/i>. German Federal Archive . https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gordon_A._Craig.<\/p>\n

Nicholas Cull<\/i>. n.d. Photograph. Nicholas Cull- Press Room USC<\/i>. https:\/\/pressroom.usc.edu\/nicholas-cull\/.<\/p>\n

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