{"id":82,"date":"2021-03-23T14:45:24","date_gmt":"2021-03-23T14:45:24","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/chapter\/8-of-courage-improperly-so-called\/"},"modified":"2026-06-14T20:01:51","modified_gmt":"2026-06-14T20:01:51","slug":"8-other-things-often-called-courage","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/chapter\/8-other-things-often-called-courage\/","title":{"rendered":"Section 8: Other things often called “courage”"},"content":{"raw":"Courage, then, [15]<\/sub> is something of sort we have just described. But the name \"courage\" is also applied to five other kinds of disposition.\r\n\r\n(1) First comes political courage, which is the one most like true courage. Citizens seem to face dangers because of the penalties imposed by the laws and the reproaches they would otherwise incur, and because of the honors and respect they win by such action. Hence, the most courageous seem to be those among whom cowards are held in dishonor and brave men in honor.\r\n\r\nThis is the kind of courage that Homer depicts in, for example, the characters of Diomede and in Hector:\r\n

\"Polydamas will be the first to heap reproach on me then\" and \"For Hector one day among the Trojans shall utter his vaulting harangue: [25]<\/sub> Tydeides was afraid, and fled from my face.\"<\/p>\r\nThis kind of courage is most like true courage, which we described earlier, because it is due to virtue. For political courage is due to shame, to a desire of what is noble (namely, honor), and to the avoidance of disgrace (which is ignoble).\r\n\r\nOne might put into the same class even those who are compelled by their rulers to face danger. [30]<\/sub> But they are inferior, inasmuch as they do what they do not from shame but from fear, and to avoid not what is disgraceful but what is painful. For their masters compel them, as Hector does in this passage:\r\n

\"But if I shall spy any dastard that cowers far from the fight,\r\nVainly will such an one hope to escape from the dogs.\" [35]<\/sub><\/p>\r\nAnd commanders who beat people if they retreat, do the same, and so do those who draw them up with trenches or something of the sort behind them. [1116b1]<\/sub> All of these apply compulsion. But one ought to be courageous not under compulsion but because it is noble to be brave.\r\n\r\n(2) Experience in particular areas is also thought to be courage. This is the reason why Socrates thought courage was knowledge. Professional soldiers exhibit this quality similar to courage in the dangers of war, and other people [5]<\/sub> exhibit it in other kinds of dangers. In war there seem to be many situations that aren't that dangerous, and professional soldiers have the most comprehensive experience of this. Therefore, they seem brave, because the others do not realize when a situation isn't that dangerous. Likewise, their experience makes them most capable in attack and in defense, since they can use their weapons well and have the kind of weapons [10]<\/sub> that are likely to be the best both for attack and for defense. Hence they fight like armed men against unarmed people or like trained athletes against amateurs. For in such contests too it is not the most courageous that fight best, but those who are strongest and have their bodies in the best condition.\r\n\r\nProfessional soldiers [15]<\/sub> turn out to be cowards, however, when the danger puts too great a strain on them and they are inferior in numbers and equipment. For they are the first to run away, while citizen-forces die at their posts, as in fact happened at the temple of Hermes. For to the latter, fleeing is disgraceful and death is preferable to safety on those terms; while the former [20]<\/sub> from the very beginning faced the danger on the assumption that they were stronger, and when they know things are actually getting dangerous they flee, fearing death more than disgrace. But the courageous man is not that sort of person.\r\n\r\n(3) People also sometimes view strong passion or spirit as courage. Those who act from a strong passion, like wild beasts rushing at those who have wounded them, are thought to be brave, because [25]<\/sub> people who are truly courageous are also passionate. For a strong passion is most eager to rush into danger.\r\n\r\nHence Homer says, \"he put strength into his passion\" and \"he aroused their spirit and passion\" and \"bitter rage he breathed panting\" and \"his blood boiled.\" For all such expressions seem to indicate the stirring and onset of a strong passion.\r\n\r\nNow courageous people [30]<\/sub> act for what is noble, while passion aids them. But wild beasts act under the influence of pain. For they attack because they have been wounded or because they are afraid, since if they are in a forest they do not come near one. Yet it is not courageous to rush into danger without foreseeing any of the risks, driven by pain and strong passion. [35]<\/sub> If that were the case, even donkeys would be brave when they are hungry, since hitting them will not drive them from their food. Likewise, lust makes adulterers [1117a1]<\/sub> do many daring deeds. Those who are driven to danger simply by pain or passion, then, are not courageous. But the so-called \"courage\" that is due to strong passion seems to be the most natural, and to be genuine courage if choice and motive are added. [5]<\/sub><\/span>\r\n\r\nHuman beings, then, as well as wild beasts, suffer pain when they are angry, and are pleased when they take revenge. Those who fight for these reasons, however, even if they are good fighters, are not courageous. For they do not act for the sake of what is noble or as reason directs, but from strength of feeling. They do, however, have something similar to courage.\r\n\r\n(4) Nor are optimistic people courageous. For they are confident in danger only because they have conquered often and against many enemies. [10]<\/sub> Yet they closely resemble those who are courageous, because both are confident. But those who are courageous are confident for the reasons stated earlier, while optimistic people are confident because they think they are the strongest and can suffer nothing. People who are drunk also become optimistic and behave this way. When things don't turn out as well as they expected, however, [15]<\/sub> they run away.\r\n\r\nBut it is the mark of a courageous person to face things that are, and seem, frightening for a person, because it is noble to do so and disgraceful not to do so. Hence it is also considered the mark of a courageous person to be fearless and undisturbed in sudden dangers than to be fearless and undisturbed in the face of dangers that are foreseen. For it must have proceeded more from a stable disposition, [20]<\/sub> and less from the person's deliberate preparation. Actions that are foreseen may be chosen by calculation and reasoning. But sudden actions must be in accordance with one's character.\r\n\r\n(5) People who are ignorant of the danger also appear brave, and they are not far removed from those who are optimistic. But those who are ignorant are inferior to those who are optimistic inasmuch as those seem courageous because they are ignorant aren't brave from any sense of self-worth, while optimists are. Hence also optimistic people holds their ground for a time. But those who have been deceived about the danger of a situation flee [25]<\/sub> if they know or suspect that things are more dangerous than they supposed. (This is precisely what happened to the Argives when they fell in with the Spartans and took them for Sicyonians.)\r\n\r\nWe have, then, described the character both of the truly courageous and of those who are considered to be courageous.","rendered":"

Courage, then, [15]<\/sub> is something of sort we have just described. But the name “courage” is also applied to five other kinds of disposition.<\/p>\n

(1) First comes political courage, which is the one most like true courage. Citizens seem to face dangers because of the penalties imposed by the laws and the reproaches they would otherwise incur, and because of the honors and respect they win by such action. Hence, the most courageous seem to be those among whom cowards are held in dishonor and brave men in honor.<\/p>\n

This is the kind of courage that Homer depicts in, for example, the characters of Diomede and in Hector:<\/p>\n

“Polydamas will be the first to heap reproach on me then” and “For Hector one day among the Trojans shall utter his vaulting harangue: [25]<\/sub> Tydeides was afraid, and fled from my face.”<\/p>\n

This kind of courage is most like true courage, which we described earlier, because it is due to virtue. For political courage is due to shame, to a desire of what is noble (namely, honor), and to the avoidance of disgrace (which is ignoble).<\/p>\n

One might put into the same class even those who are compelled by their rulers to face danger. [30]<\/sub> But they are inferior, inasmuch as they do what they do not from shame but from fear, and to avoid not what is disgraceful but what is painful. For their masters compel them, as Hector does in this passage:<\/p>\n

“But if I shall spy any dastard that cowers far from the fight,
\nVainly will such an one hope to escape from the dogs.” [35]<\/sub><\/p>\n

And commanders who beat people if they retreat, do the same, and so do those who draw them up with trenches or something of the sort behind them. [1116b1]<\/sub> All of these apply compulsion. But one ought to be courageous not under compulsion but because it is noble to be brave.<\/p>\n

(2) Experience in particular areas is also thought to be courage. This is the reason why Socrates thought courage was knowledge. Professional soldiers exhibit this quality similar to courage in the dangers of war, and other people [5]<\/sub> exhibit it in other kinds of dangers. In war there seem to be many situations that aren’t that dangerous, and professional soldiers have the most comprehensive experience of this. Therefore, they seem brave, because the others do not realize when a situation isn’t that dangerous. Likewise, their experience makes them most capable in attack and in defense, since they can use their weapons well and have the kind of weapons [10]<\/sub> that are likely to be the best both for attack and for defense. Hence they fight like armed men against unarmed people or like trained athletes against amateurs. For in such contests too it is not the most courageous that fight best, but those who are strongest and have their bodies in the best condition.<\/p>\n

Professional soldiers [15]<\/sub> turn out to be cowards, however, when the danger puts too great a strain on them and they are inferior in numbers and equipment. For they are the first to run away, while citizen-forces die at their posts, as in fact happened at the temple of Hermes. For to the latter, fleeing is disgraceful and death is preferable to safety on those terms; while the former [20]<\/sub> from the very beginning faced the danger on the assumption that they were stronger, and when they know things are actually getting dangerous they flee, fearing death more than disgrace. But the courageous man is not that sort of person.<\/p>\n

(3) People also sometimes view strong passion or spirit as courage. Those who act from a strong passion, like wild beasts rushing at those who have wounded them, are thought to be brave, because [25]<\/sub> people who are truly courageous are also passionate. For a strong passion is most eager to rush into danger.<\/p>\n

Hence Homer says, “he put strength into his passion” and “he aroused their spirit and passion” and “bitter rage he breathed panting” and “his blood boiled.” For all such expressions seem to indicate the stirring and onset of a strong passion.<\/p>\n

Now courageous people [30]<\/sub> act for what is noble, while passion aids them. But wild beasts act under the influence of pain. For they attack because they have been wounded or because they are afraid, since if they are in a forest they do not come near one. Yet it is not courageous to rush into danger without foreseeing any of the risks, driven by pain and strong passion. [35]<\/sub> If that were the case, even donkeys would be brave when they are hungry, since hitting them will not drive them from their food. Likewise, lust makes adulterers [1117a1]<\/sub> do many daring deeds. Those who are driven to danger simply by pain or passion, then, are not courageous. But the so-called “courage” that is due to strong passion seems to be the most natural, and to be genuine courage if choice and motive are added. [5]<\/sub><\/span><\/p>\n

Human beings, then, as well as wild beasts, suffer pain when they are angry, and are pleased when they take revenge. Those who fight for these reasons, however, even if they are good fighters, are not courageous. For they do not act for the sake of what is noble or as reason directs, but from strength of feeling. They do, however, have something similar to courage.<\/p>\n

(4) Nor are optimistic people courageous. For they are confident in danger only because they have conquered often and against many enemies. [10]<\/sub> Yet they closely resemble those who are courageous, because both are confident. But those who are courageous are confident for the reasons stated earlier, while optimistic people are confident because they think they are the strongest and can suffer nothing. People who are drunk also become optimistic and behave this way. When things don’t turn out as well as they expected, however, [15]<\/sub> they run away.<\/p>\n

But it is the mark of a courageous person to face things that are, and seem, frightening for a person, because it is noble to do so and disgraceful not to do so. Hence it is also considered the mark of a courageous person to be fearless and undisturbed in sudden dangers than to be fearless and undisturbed in the face of dangers that are foreseen. For it must have proceeded more from a stable disposition, [20]<\/sub> and less from the person’s deliberate preparation. Actions that are foreseen may be chosen by calculation and reasoning. But sudden actions must be in accordance with one’s character.<\/p>\n

(5) People who are ignorant of the danger also appear brave, and they are not far removed from those who are optimistic. But those who are ignorant are inferior to those who are optimistic inasmuch as those seem courageous because they are ignorant aren’t brave from any sense of self-worth, while optimists are. Hence also optimistic people holds their ground for a time. But those who have been deceived about the danger of a situation flee [25]<\/sub> if they know or suspect that things are more dangerous than they supposed. (This is precisely what happened to the Argives when they fell in with the Spartans and took them for Sicyonians.)<\/p>\n

We have, then, described the character both of the truly courageous and of those who are considered to be courageous.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":249,"menu_order":8,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[48],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-82","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless"],"part":66,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/82","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/249"}],"version-history":[{"count":12,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/82\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":972,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/82\/revisions\/972"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/66"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/82\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=82"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=82"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=82"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/nicomacheanethics\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=82"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}