{"id":30,"date":"2023-06-17T00:49:30","date_gmt":"2023-06-17T00:49:30","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/?post_type=chapter&p=30"},"modified":"2024-02-08T16:08:52","modified_gmt":"2024-02-08T16:08:52","slug":"chapter-6-medieval-shiite-theological-writing","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/chapter\/chapter-6-medieval-shiite-theological-writing\/","title":{"rendered":"Chapter 10: Medieval Shi’ite Theological Writing"},"content":{"raw":"Ab\u016b \u1e24an\u012bfa al-Nu`m\u0101n ibn Mu\u1e25ammad ibn Man\u1e63\u016br ibn A\u1e25mad ibn \u1e24ayy\u016bn al-Tam\u012bmiyy was born in the city of Qayrawan (in modern day Tunisia) in the early tenth century CE.\u00a0 Although not much is known about his childhood, it is believed that his father was a Maliki jurist who converted to Isma`ili Shi'ism shortly before the establishment of the Fatimid dynasty in 909 CE.\u00a0 Thus it is likely that al-Nu`m\u0101n was raised as an Isma`ili, although some Muslim scholars claim that he was a Sunni practitioner of the Hanafi school of Islamic law before converting to Isma`ili Shi'ism as an adult.\r\n\r\nThe Fatimid dynasty was established by an Isma`ili missionary known as Ab\u016b Abdall\u0101h al-Shi`i, with the help of Kutama Berbers who conquered Ifriqiya (Tunisia) between 902-909 CE.\u00a0 The first map below (Campaign map of the fall of the Aghlabid empire) shows the territory conquered by the Fatimids at this time. In August 909, \u00a0Ab\u016b Abdall\u0101h brought his master, \u00a0Ab\u016b Abdall\u0101h al-Mahd\u012b bi'll\u0101h, from the desert town of Sijilmasa in southeastern Morocco back to Tunisia, where he was enthroned as the first leader of the new Fatimid dynasty in January 910.\u00a0 \u00a0Al-Mahd\u012b claimed to be the Shi'ite Imam, and he took the title of caliph, thus setting himself up as a direct challenger to the Sunni Abbasid caliph in Baghdad.\r\n\r\nInspired by their messianic ideology, the Fatimids conquered much of North Africa, competing with the Umayyad empire of al-Andalus (Islamic Spain) for influence in Morocco and Algeria.\u00a0 In 969, the Fatimids conquered Egypt, establishing a new capital named al-Q\u0101hirah (\"The Victorious,\" modern day Cairo).\u00a0 From their new base, the Fatimids conquered the holy lands in Arabia (Mecca and Medina) as well as Damascus and Palestine.\u00a0 They established al-Azhar University in 972 CE, where they taught Isma`ili theology and trained missionaries who would be sent out to take the Shi'ite message into the Sunni world. \u00a0See the second map below (Fatimid Caliphate, circa 1000 CE) for the extent of Fatimid holdings at the height of their power.\r\n\r\nIn 925 CE, al-Nu`m\u0101n was hired by the Fatimids to work as a minor official in the court of Ab\u016b Abdall\u0101h al-Mahd\u012b. \u00a0He rose quickly in the government hierarchy.\u00a0 By 948, he was appointed to the position of supreme qadi<\/em> (Islamic judge) in the empire.\u00a0 In this powerful position, Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n played an important role in the development and articulation of Isma`ili Shi'ite doctrinal teachings.\u00a0 He proved to be a prolific author, publishing more than forty works on theology, history, Islamic law, and esoteric Shi'ite philosophy.\u00a0 He has been credited with expounding Shi'ite teachings in a logical and persuasive manner that was understandable to the masses living under Fatimid rule.\u00a0 \u00a0Some historians argue that Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n moderated some of the more extreme early Shi'ite teachings and, in some cases, advocated teachings similar to Sunni beliefs.\r\n\r\nThe theological writings of Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n provide insight into the basic teachings of Isma`ili Shi'ism during the medieval period.\u00a0 As chief qadi<\/em> for the Fatimid dynasty, al-Nu`m\u0101n also articulated a belief system that supported the universalist claims of the Fatimid caliph.\u00a0 He codified Isma`ili teachings in a manner that had not been done prior to his time, and his legal texts provided a foundation for Isma`ili religious law throughout the remaining 200 years of Fatimid rule.\u00a0 Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n served the Fatimid government for fifty years, working for four different caliphs, and he died in Cairo in 974 CE.\u00a0 The fact that his funeral prayer was led by the Fatimid caliph al-Mu`izz demonstrates how connected this influential cleric was to the most powerful figures in the early Fatimid dynasty.\r\n\r\nThe first reading linked below is a short biography of Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n written by Dr. Farhad Daftary.\u00a0 The second link is to an excerpt from Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n's famous text, The Book of Faith<\/em>.\u00a0 In this excerpt, al-Nu`m\u0101n argues that Muhammad's cousin `Ali was his rightful successor (plenipotentiary or viceregent), and that his descendants (the Imams) were the rightful leaders of the Islamic community.\u00a0 He refutes arguments made by Sunnis (referred to in the text as Murjites or commonalty), rationalists (Mu`tazila), and Kharijites.\u00a0 \u00a0Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n backs up his argument by referring to a key event that took place near the end of the Prophet's life (Ghadir Khumm) at which the Shi'ites claim Muhammad made clear his preference for `Ali as his successor.\u00a0 \u00a0He also discusses other events during Muhammad's lifetime that he takes to infer the supremacy of `Ali over the other companions of the Prophet. \u00a0Note that the main sources he cites are the Imams themselves, particularly Imam al-Baqir and Ja`far al-Sadiq.\u00a0 He also refers in his text to a key Shi'ite doctrine (the doctrine of nass<\/em>), which affirms that each Imam was appointed directly by the preceding Imam, thus negating the Sunni claim that the leaders of the Muslim community have the responsibility to choose the caliph.\u00a0 You will also notice that he criticizes key Sunni figures such as Abu Bakr (the first caliph), Umar (the second caliph) and Aisha (the Prophet's favorite wife).\r\n\r\nAs you read the text, consider the ways in which Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n's argument differs from Sunni viewpoints, how he justifies his position and the evidence he uses to back up his points.\r\n\r\nShort Biography on Qadi Nu'man<\/a>\r\n\r\nBecause the translated text of\u00a0The Book of Faith<\/em> is still copyrighted, access to the text is password protected on ECR.\u00a0 Follow the instructions for accessing ECR texts presented on the course Blackboard site and look up the reading, \"Excerpts from the Book of Faith<\/em>\" by Qadi Nu'man.\r\n\r\nThe Book of Faith <\/em>by Qadi al-Nu`man<\/a>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_253\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1483\"]\"\" Campaign map of the fall of the Aghlabid Emirate to the Isma'ili Kutama Berbers. Source: https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Fall_of_the_Aghlabid_Emirate.svg, CC BY-SA Constantine Plakidas.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_255\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"780\"]\"\" Fatimid Caliphate, circa 1000 CE, Source: https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:C47E289B1-F1EC-46B2-9DF7-B559EE868779.gif, CC BY-SA Abdul Aoun.[\/caption]","rendered":"

Ab\u016b \u1e24an\u012bfa al-Nu`m\u0101n ibn Mu\u1e25ammad ibn Man\u1e63\u016br ibn A\u1e25mad ibn \u1e24ayy\u016bn al-Tam\u012bmiyy was born in the city of Qayrawan (in modern day Tunisia) in the early tenth century CE.\u00a0 Although not much is known about his childhood, it is believed that his father was a Maliki jurist who converted to Isma`ili Shi’ism shortly before the establishment of the Fatimid dynasty in 909 CE.\u00a0 Thus it is likely that al-Nu`m\u0101n was raised as an Isma`ili, although some Muslim scholars claim that he was a Sunni practitioner of the Hanafi school of Islamic law before converting to Isma`ili Shi’ism as an adult.<\/p>\n

The Fatimid dynasty was established by an Isma`ili missionary known as Ab\u016b Abdall\u0101h al-Shi`i, with the help of Kutama Berbers who conquered Ifriqiya (Tunisia) between 902-909 CE.\u00a0 The first map below (Campaign map of the fall of the Aghlabid empire) shows the territory conquered by the Fatimids at this time. In August 909, \u00a0Ab\u016b Abdall\u0101h brought his master, \u00a0Ab\u016b Abdall\u0101h al-Mahd\u012b bi’ll\u0101h, from the desert town of Sijilmasa in southeastern Morocco back to Tunisia, where he was enthroned as the first leader of the new Fatimid dynasty in January 910.\u00a0 \u00a0Al-Mahd\u012b claimed to be the Shi’ite Imam, and he took the title of caliph, thus setting himself up as a direct challenger to the Sunni Abbasid caliph in Baghdad.<\/p>\n

Inspired by their messianic ideology, the Fatimids conquered much of North Africa, competing with the Umayyad empire of al-Andalus (Islamic Spain) for influence in Morocco and Algeria.\u00a0 In 969, the Fatimids conquered Egypt, establishing a new capital named al-Q\u0101hirah (“The Victorious,” modern day Cairo).\u00a0 From their new base, the Fatimids conquered the holy lands in Arabia (Mecca and Medina) as well as Damascus and Palestine.\u00a0 They established al-Azhar University in 972 CE, where they taught Isma`ili theology and trained missionaries who would be sent out to take the Shi’ite message into the Sunni world. \u00a0See the second map below (Fatimid Caliphate, circa 1000 CE) for the extent of Fatimid holdings at the height of their power.<\/p>\n

In 925 CE, al-Nu`m\u0101n was hired by the Fatimids to work as a minor official in the court of Ab\u016b Abdall\u0101h al-Mahd\u012b. \u00a0He rose quickly in the government hierarchy.\u00a0 By 948, he was appointed to the position of supreme qadi<\/em> (Islamic judge) in the empire.\u00a0 In this powerful position, Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n played an important role in the development and articulation of Isma`ili Shi’ite doctrinal teachings.\u00a0 He proved to be a prolific author, publishing more than forty works on theology, history, Islamic law, and esoteric Shi’ite philosophy.\u00a0 He has been credited with expounding Shi’ite teachings in a logical and persuasive manner that was understandable to the masses living under Fatimid rule.\u00a0 \u00a0Some historians argue that Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n moderated some of the more extreme early Shi’ite teachings and, in some cases, advocated teachings similar to Sunni beliefs.<\/p>\n

The theological writings of Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n provide insight into the basic teachings of Isma`ili Shi’ism during the medieval period.\u00a0 As chief qadi<\/em> for the Fatimid dynasty, al-Nu`m\u0101n also articulated a belief system that supported the universalist claims of the Fatimid caliph.\u00a0 He codified Isma`ili teachings in a manner that had not been done prior to his time, and his legal texts provided a foundation for Isma`ili religious law throughout the remaining 200 years of Fatimid rule.\u00a0 Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n served the Fatimid government for fifty years, working for four different caliphs, and he died in Cairo in 974 CE.\u00a0 The fact that his funeral prayer was led by the Fatimid caliph al-Mu`izz demonstrates how connected this influential cleric was to the most powerful figures in the early Fatimid dynasty.<\/p>\n

The first reading linked below is a short biography of Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n written by Dr. Farhad Daftary.\u00a0 The second link is to an excerpt from Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n’s famous text, The Book of Faith<\/em>.\u00a0 In this excerpt, al-Nu`m\u0101n argues that Muhammad’s cousin `Ali was his rightful successor (plenipotentiary or viceregent), and that his descendants (the Imams) were the rightful leaders of the Islamic community.\u00a0 He refutes arguments made by Sunnis (referred to in the text as Murjites or commonalty), rationalists (Mu`tazila), and Kharijites.\u00a0 \u00a0Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n backs up his argument by referring to a key event that took place near the end of the Prophet’s life (Ghadir Khumm) at which the Shi’ites claim Muhammad made clear his preference for `Ali as his successor.\u00a0 \u00a0He also discusses other events during Muhammad’s lifetime that he takes to infer the supremacy of `Ali over the other companions of the Prophet. \u00a0Note that the main sources he cites are the Imams themselves, particularly Imam al-Baqir and Ja`far al-Sadiq.\u00a0 He also refers in his text to a key Shi’ite doctrine (the doctrine of nass<\/em>), which affirms that each Imam was appointed directly by the preceding Imam, thus negating the Sunni claim that the leaders of the Muslim community have the responsibility to choose the caliph.\u00a0 You will also notice that he criticizes key Sunni figures such as Abu Bakr (the first caliph), Umar (the second caliph) and Aisha (the Prophet’s favorite wife).<\/p>\n

As you read the text, consider the ways in which Qadi al-Nu`m\u0101n’s argument differs from Sunni viewpoints, how he justifies his position and the evidence he uses to back up his points.<\/p>\n

Short Biography on Qadi Nu’man<\/a><\/p>\n

Because the translated text of\u00a0The Book of Faith<\/em> is still copyrighted, access to the text is password protected on ECR.\u00a0 Follow the instructions for accessing ECR texts presented on the course Blackboard site and look up the reading, “Excerpts from the Book of Faith<\/em>” by Qadi Nu’man.<\/p>\n

The Book of Faith <\/em>by Qadi al-Nu`man<\/a><\/p>\n

\"\"
Campaign map of the fall of the Aghlabid Emirate to the Isma’ili Kutama Berbers. Source: https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Fall_of_the_Aghlabid_Emirate.svg, CC BY-SA Constantine Plakidas.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

 <\/p>\n

\"\"
Fatimid Caliphate, circa 1000 CE, Source: https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:C47E289B1-F1EC-46B2-9DF7-B559EE868779.gif, CC BY-SA Abdul Aoun.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n","protected":false},"author":114,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-30","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/30","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/114"}],"version-history":[{"count":17,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/30\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":258,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/30\/revisions\/258"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/30\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=30"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=30"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=30"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/premodernmiddleeast\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=30"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}