{"id":257,"date":"2021-07-26T22:22:01","date_gmt":"2021-07-26T22:22:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/?post_type=chapter&p=257"},"modified":"2021-08-09T16:13:47","modified_gmt":"2021-08-09T16:13:47","slug":"6-14-2-literacy-in-computer-science","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/chapter\/6-14-2-literacy-in-computer-science\/","title":{"rendered":"6.14.2 Literacy in computer science (research essay)"},"content":{"raw":"

English 102, April 2021<\/h3>\r\n

Introduction<\/h1>\r\nComputer Science is one of the fastest growing fields as the world\u00a0transitions to increased automation.\u00a0Schools of all levels are putting\u00a0a greater\u00a0emphasis on\u00a0educating the younger generation on programming. This\u00a0suggests\u00a0that schools are\u00a0growing their STEM departments, which house the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.\u00a0In order to understand\u00a0why many educators are approaching the field of Computer Science in this way,\u00a0it must be understood what Computer Science is.\u00a0It is\u00a0most commonly defined\u00a0as the study of computer software and computing systems.\u00a0More specifically, it deals with\u00a0creating,\u00a0reading, and error-checking\u00a0programming or code.\u00a0While it is true that STEM is very important within\u00a0the field of\u00a0programming,\u00a0there are other important aspects of coding that are\u00a0not\u00a0frequently\u00a0considered by many educators.\u00a0Coding includes being able to read, write, and communicate\u00a0in a unique way, which\u00a0implies\u00a0that\u00a0literacy involved in the field.\u00a0Any form of literacy that is not directly learning how to read, write, or communicate in standard\u00a0English is often not considered to be literacy, which is a major reason that its importance within programming is not recognized.\u00a0The fact that many educators within the\u00a0field of Computer Science do not realize the importance of literacy\u00a0alludes to the idea that the teaching of\u00a0programming may be flawed in\u00a0its methods and implementation.\r\n\r\nComputer Science is very important in my life,\u00a0as\u00a0I am currently pursuing a degree in the field. I have been programming for just over\u00a0a year\u00a0now\u00a0and have experience in Python and Java programming languages. I have taken three courses\u00a0on\u00a0programming\/computer science\u00a0in college, in which I have learned so much about\u00a0programming and Computer Science in general. In addition to\u00a0coursework, I frequently work on coding projects for my own entertainment and read\/watch articles and videos on programming.\u00a0Any knowledge that I gain\u00a0on\u00a0the most effective ways to learn programming\u00a0is very important to my future.\u00a0Even more important than gaining this knowledge for myself, being able to\u00a0spread this knowledge to grow the field\u00a0is paramount.\u00a0\u00a0Although I am not an expert in programming, I have had many\u00a0learning experiences with programming\u00a0that qualify me to discuss\u00a0my personal experiences with learning how to program.\u00a0Since the focus of this essay\u00a0deals with the teaching methods and learning experiences of programming,\u00a0the relative\u00a0freshness of my\u00a0learning experiences with programming\u00a0provides me with an advantage over\u00a0industry professionals\u00a0in this discussion.\r\n

Writing in Computer Science<\/h1>\r\n\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong> Although it may\u00a0be somewhat difficult to discover the parallels between computer programming and literacy, the literacy aspect of\u00a0writing can be understood very easily. When thinking of what a programmer does, one of the\u00a0simplest and\u00a0high-level\u00a0descriptions could be \u201csomeone who writes code.\u201d\u00a0The main similarity between the two practices is the\u00a0exist\u00a0in the\u00a0process of creating a finalized piece of work, whether it be a novel\u00a0for\u00a0an application.\u00a0In\u00a0Felienne\u00a0Hermans and Marlies\u00a0Aldewereld\u2019s\u00a0article, \u201cProgramming is Writing is Programming,\u201d\u00a0the authors describe the\u00a0beginning of the writing process and programming workflow to include a high-level plan (1).\u00a0The next step in both processes is to\u00a0convert these high-level designs into\u00a0low-level, workable steps.\u00a0For\u00a0writers, these\u00a0low-level\u00a0steps include sentences and\u00a0words; for\u00a0programmers, they include methods, functions, and lines of code.\u00a0For both practices, intermediate steps are needed\u00a0manage\u00a0the organization of the work, such as chapters in writing and classes and objects in programming (Hermans and Marlies 2).\u00a0In\u00a0the\u00a0programming course that I am currently enrolled in, every coding assignment that is submitted must be accompanied by\u00a0pseudocode, which is essentially\u00a0a plan for how the final code will look. This pseudocode, which is written in a mix of English and Java syntax,\u00a0begins with high-level plans that are broken down into smaller, more manageable steps. The process of writing\u00a0pseudocode\u00a0was not all that difficult to me when I realized that it was just like the outlines that I have been writing for English courses for years. These outlines\u00a0broke up the goal of the essay into manageable portions and consisted of some wording that would be directly added to the essay and some\u00a0rough ideas that would need to be converted into\u00a0cohesive writing.\r\n\r\nIn Ziva R. Hassenfeld\u2019s\u00a0et al\u00a0article,\u00a0\u201cIf you\u00a0can Program you can Write,\u201d\u00a0explores the constructs shared by\u00a0computer programming and writing in\u00a0great detail.\u00a0The authors discuss the similar constructs between the two practices as, \u201cplanning and prewriting, creating and drafting, testing and evaluating, and\u00a0debugging and editing and revising\u201d (Hassenfeld et al.\u00a068).\u00a0The study described in this article, which focuses on the correlation between\u00a0elementary\u00a0student\u2019s ability to write and ability to learn\u00a0programming,\u00a0showed that these similarities between the two practices\u00a0produce a correlation between\u00a0students\u2019 ability to write and their ability to program (Hassenfeld et al.\u00a075).\u00a0In\u00a0the section titled \u201cProgramming as Literacy\u201d of Annette Vee\u2019s novel, \u201cCoding Literacy: How Computer Programming is Changing Writing,\u201d she discusses an extremely interesting\u00a0way to observe the similarities between writing and programming.\u00a0Vee dives into exploring the ways in which\u00a0programming is treated like writing within United States\u00a0law.\u00a0The United States\u00a0Congress amended the 1976 Copywrite Act in 1980 to\u00a0categorize computer code as\u00a0a \u201cliterary work\u201d\u00a0and a \u201cform of writing\u201d (Vee 450).\u00a0Since a law protecting writing and\u00a0forms of creative expression, it can be alluded that\u00a0the United\u00a0States law views computer programming as a form\u00a0of writing.\r\n

Reading in Computer Science<\/h1>\r\nReading is also extremely prevalent within the world of programming and Computer Science in general.\u00a0Peg\u00a0Grafwallner\u2019s\u00a0article, \u201cEncoding Literacy in Computer Science,\u201d\u00a0examines\u00a0an instructional coach and computer science teacher\u2019s\u00a0attempt\u00a0to implement literacy lessons into a computer science class.\u00a0The article states that reading within Computer Science\u00a0requires students to focus on one specific area at a time,\u00a0thinking in a linear and conceptual\u00a0manner (Grafwallner).\u00a0The\u202fcomputer science class\u00a0discussed in this article\u00a0was taught with an emphasis on literacy through directions, ultimately proving to\u202fboost\u202fthe success of the students\u2019 ability to program. The ability to read\u00a0instructions\u00a0was determined to be the most vital skill in programming (Grafwallner).\r\n\r\nIn Marthie\u00a0Schoeman\u2019s article, \u201cReading\u00a0Skills\u00a0Can\u00a0Predict the\u00a0Programming\u00a0Performance of\u00a0Novices,\u201d\u00a0the relationship between reading and ability to code is discussed extensively.\u00a0In the study described in the article,\u00a0the reading level of\u00a0students\u00a0were determined using eye-tracking technology. The students then took an introductory course in computer programming that would be followed by a final examination\u00a0(Schoeman\u00a044).\u00a0The results of the study show that students with low reading skills failed the programming component, while those with higher reading skills did better overall. These results depict the fact that reading skills do play a role in one\u2019s ability to learn programming\u00a0(Schoeman\u00a048). This\u00a0relation\u00a0can be attributed\u00a0to the fact that programming is\u00a0a form\u00a0high-level written language in its own sense.\u00a0In my own experiences, reading programming has proved to be one of the most vital skills that a computer\u00a0programmer can possess.\u00a0One of the main points of emphasis within Computer Science classes is being able to read and debug others\u2019 code.\u00a0Since there are so\u00a0many different ways\u00a0that a program can be created, I initially struggled with reading others\u2019 code.\u00a0The skill of reading code is very similar to reading literary works, as\u00a0some authors are naturally easier to follow along with than others. Reading code is a vital aspect of computer programming and is a skill that I am still working on improving.\r\n

Communication in Computer Science<\/h1>\r\nAlthough communication is not necessarily involved in the creation of all computer programs, communication in vital within the professional setting of Computer Science, in addition to\u00a0engaging in\u00a0programming\u00a0within a team\u00a0environment.\u00a0In Gilles\u00a0Dubochet\u2019s\u00a0article, \u201cComputer Code as a Medium for Human Communication,\u201d it is\u00a0stated\u00a0that communication between a human and a computer is the main\u00a0objective\u00a0of computer programming. The article goes on to state that computer programming itself has become a channel for human communication\u00a0(Dubochet\u00a01).\u00a0The article explores the increase in team usage in the field of computer science, suggesting that the ability to understand the code that other\u2019s write is extremely important (2). Understanding the code that others write is\u00a0not only\u00a0dependent on\u00a0one's\u00a0ability to read and understand\u00a0coding syntax and standards, but also the ability of the person reading the code and the person who wrote the code to communicate\u00a0effectively\u00a0with one another.\u00a0The article suggests that communication is not only\u00a0prevalent through oral dialect, but that programming languages are becoming a channel for communication between programmers (Dubochet\u00a013). In other words, programmers\u00a0are able to\u00a0convey their thoughts through a programming language.\r\n\r\nAt the start of my college career, I did not\u00a0expect for\u00a0communication to be as prevalent as it was within my Computer Science courses. Throughout the entire Fall\u00a0Semester\u00a0of my introduction to\u00a0programming\u00a0course, a team of students that we were assigned to were required to code a robot. Due\u00a0to the business of the group members\u2019 schedules, we often had to do portions of the project on our own. This meant that I would often log in to\u00a0add a portion to the code and would be confused by the code that was just written above.\u00a0Through a simple phone call or text,\u00a0all of\u00a0the team members were able to understand the others\u2019 work.\u00a0The communication\u00a0between our team was extremely important for this reason, as the project would have fallen apart without it.\u00a0Throughout the semester, our team began to \u201ccomment\u201d our code, which is simply inserting explanation within the code that do not affect how the code runs. If \u201c\/\/\u201d is used before a line, the\u00a0programming software environment understands that this is just for programmers to read. This simple\u00a0addition to our code meant that we were\u00a0actually\u00a0able\u00a0to\u00a0communicate\u00a0directly\u00a0through\u00a0the code, without having to text, call, or talk at\u00a0all.\r\n\r\nMarc Riemer breaks down the importance of communication and language skills in a broader field of engineering in the article titled, \u201cCommunication Skills for the 21st Century Engineer.\u201d\u00a0Riemer discusses the importance of communication skills\u00a0in engineering, primarily focusing on\u00a0the English language.\u00a0He states that English is the most widespread language in the world and that effective communication in English is a\u00a0skill that develops more successful engineers (91).\u00a0Riemer\u00a0examines\u00a0the importance of\u00a0communication between\u00a0engineers\u00a0and stakeholders\u00a0(95). After\u00a0engineers'\u00a0years of education in upper-level concepts, it can be difficult to\u00a0decipher what stakeholders are familiar and not familiar with. Being able to effectively break down the concepts into more common terminology plays a major role in one\u2019s success within\u00a0the field of Computer Science as well as all other engineering disciplines.\u00a0The findings of this article suggest that an increase in communication and language courses in college curriculums will produce more successful engineers (Riemer 98).\u00a0Although this article focuses more broadly on engineering,\u00a0Computer Science is a major branch of engineering that shares in the same challenges of communication as all other major fields\u00a0of engineering.\r\n

Computer Programming as a Language in\u00a0Itself<\/h1>\r\nComputer Programming is much more than a computational practice, as learning programming languages comes with many of the same challenges as learning human languages,\u00a0uncovering\u00a0the fact that computer programming is its own\u00a0unique form of literacy or language. When I was applying for colleges and deciding on a major, I honestly did not know what I wanted to do. I knew that I loved math and problem solving and would want to pursue a career in math-based field. The reason that I chose to pursue a career in Computer Science was purely for this reason, as I have never taken a coding course or had any prior experience. Once I began coding in my collegiate level courses,\u00a0I fell in love with the problem-solving aspect. I was grasping the various coding techniques and\u00a0problem-solving\u00a0methods, but\u00a0found that the portion I was struggling with the most was syntax and coding conventions.\u00a0I thought that learning to program would be like learning Calculus, but, in reality, it\u00a0was\u00a0actually like\u00a0learning a new language.\r\n\r\nThe world of programming is extremely complex, with syntax and grammar of its own, comparable to the grammar and structure used in human languages.\u00a0The article, \u201cClassifying Programming languages,\u201d is an excellent source for understanding\u00a0how programming languages are classified and the many similarities and differences between.\u00a0The authors state that there are eight major categories of programming languages,\u00a0categorized by \u201clinguistic structure, expressive features, possibility of efficient implementation, direct support for certain programming models, and similar concerns\u201d (\u201cClassifying Programming Languages\u201d). This\u00a0practice of categorizing languages based on various features is used extensively in human languages also.\u00a0For example, the Romance Languages are all rooted in Latin and have similar sounds, sentence structure, etc.\u00a0The article goes on to explain there are many styles of programming that can be used within one language (\u201cClassifying Programming\u00a0Languages\u201d). This is also a construct that is common\u00a0throughout\u00a0human languages, as there are many styles of writing within the English language.\u00a0Programming languages also have their own grammar and syntax. The grammar portion of coding could be described through common code standards, such as camel case being used for variable\u00a0names or uppercase being used for constant names. The syntax portion of coding is slightly different than in English, as\u00a0errors in\u00a0syntax\u00a0within programming will cause the program to crash, losing functionality.\r\n\r\nIn Ana Harris\u2019 article, \u201cHuman Languages vs. Programming Languages,\u201d she breaks down the criteria for something to be considered a language. Harris states that the main\u00a0function of language is communication. She goes on to explain that the function of programming languages is to\u00a0communicate a series of an instructions to a computer or machine, alluding to the idea that programming languages are\u00a0indeed unique forms of literacy\/language.\u00a0Harris zooms in on another major similarity between human languages and programming languages, being structure. She discusses the concepts of semantics\u00a0(meaning connected to a certain concept)\u00a0and syntax\u00a0(rules for aligning words and phrases)\u00a0from the perspective\u00a0of a linguist.\u00a0She states that programming uses semantics, as every program has a specific intention, and syntax, which includes following rules for the use of variables, functions, parenthesis, colons, etc.\u00a0(Harris). These many similarities allow for programming to be considered its own unique form of literacy or language.\r\n

Connection between Literacy Skills and Programming Ability<\/h1>\r\nDue to the many parallels between computer programming and literacy, it can be gathered that programming ability and literacy skills\u00a0benefit one another. Although I enjoy and excel in mathematics and problem solving more-so,\u00a0I have always loved reading and writing. Throughout my journey of learning programming, this love and ability has helped to excel in the field.\u00a0Although many of my peers are more advanced than myself in mathematics, this ability has proved to give me a slight upper hand in some aspects of coding. Many of my peers who lack in this ability often have trouble with their code simply because they missed a\u00a0portion of the instruction when reading, misunderstood what was being asked of them,\u00a0or they had trouble recalling the semantics and syntax required for the program.\r\n\r\nIn\u00a0Sharin Jacob and\u00a0Mark Warschauer\u2019s article, \u201cComputational Thinking and Literacy,\u201d\u00a0the authors discuss\u00a0how\u00a0literary skills can lead to stronger computational skills.\u00a0The authors describe in detail how computational thinking (computer programming) is a form of literacy, which was discussed earlier extensively (Jacob and Warschauer 3). The authors then switch gears to focus on how literacy\u00a0skills\u00a0can\u00a0improve programming ability.\u00a0The article describes the importance of verbal analysis of game architecture\u00a0to their implementation of game design. The example that the authors use to back up this statement is as follows: The statement \u201cthe hunter killed the monkey\u201d is\u00a0implemented\u00a0into the coding as \u201cthe monkey disappears when it touches the hunter\u201d (Jacob and Warschauer 8). This example shows the importance of one literary element,\u00a0transitive verb structures, to the success of a game developer.\u00a0Jacob and Warschauer state, \u201cstudents cannot master programming syntax without understanding the semantic meaning of commands if they cannot produce correct linguistic forms without considering their corresponding meanings\u201d (10).\u00a0The authors are saying that students are required to use the same skills within literacy courses that they are required to use within programming, just manifest in\u00a0different ways.\u00a0Therefore, skills that are taught in literacy primarily can assist in\u00a0improving programming ability.\r\n\r\nMarthie Schoeman\u2019s article discussed above, \u201cReading Skills\u00a0Can\u00a0Predict the Programming Performance of Novices,\u201d further displays how literacy skill can affect programming performance.\u00a0This article\u00a0discusses a study of the relationship between reading skills and the ability to code. The\u00a0method\u00a0of the study\u00a0involved performing\u00a0an initial\u00a0eye tracking test on participants as they were reading to\u00a0determine\u00a0their reading\u00a0proficiency.\u00a0The participants were then given a short introductory course in programming, which would be followed by a knowledge exam (Schoeman 42).\u00a0The results of the study displayed\u00a0that\u00a0those students\u00a0with low reading skills failed the programming\u00a0component, while students with higher reading skills did better overall (Shoeman 48).\u00a0These results suggest that the literary skill of reading does indeed play a role in one\u2019s ability to learn programming.\r\n\r\nAll of\u00a0the findings discussed\u00a0throughout\u00a0the entirety of this essay display the fact that teaching programming to young people more\u00a0similarly\u00a0to the ways\u00a0in which\u00a0that literacy is taught may be more effective than just the typical STEM approach.\u00a0Marina Bers\u2019 article, \u201cCoding as Another Language,\u201d discusses a new method of teaching computer science to young children starting in kindergarten\u00a0called \u201cCoding as Another Language\u201d (499). The method of\u00a0teaching coding described in this article deviates from the typical STEM approach, offering the proposition that computer science teaching can be enhanced by incorporating the design of literacy instruction, due to the parallels that exists between natural languages and programming languages (Bers 504).\u00a0According to Bers, research shows that teaching children how to read and write artificial languages in the same way\u00a0as natural languages leads to a greater cognitive understanding of programming (503).\r\n\r\nIn\u00a0Ziva R. Hassenfeld\u2019s et al. article, \u201cIf you can Program you can Write,\u201d the authors examine a study of elementary students learning through the \u201cCoding as Another Language\u201d\u00a0curriculum.\u00a0The article discusses results from a test on literacy and an assessment of students\u2019 understanding of an introductory program language, drawing conclusions based upon their correlation\u00a0(Hassenfeld et al. 73).\u00a0The results of this study show that there is a connection between students\u2019 literacy levels and their height of achievement in grasping an introductory programming language (Hassenfeld et al. 75).\u00a0This indicates that there are fundamental understandings and constructs that are shared by literacy and computer programming, which are described in detail earlier.\u00a0All of\u00a0these articles suggest\u00a0that the instruction of programming in early years is more effective when taught more similarly to literacy instruction than just being taught in the typical STEM approach.\r\n

Conclusion<\/h1>\r\nThe future of\u00a0Computer Science is\u00a0limitless, due to the increase in automation throughout societies.\u00a0As the field continues to grow,\u00a0programming education will become\u00a0more and more\u00a0prevalent within\u00a0elementary and high schools across the country. The ways in which programming is taught\u00a0needs\u00a0to transition to a more\u00a0literacy-based\u00a0approach for younger children to\u00a0improve\u00a0the effectiveness of\u00a0the education.\u00a0If the instruction of programming evolves according to the findings displayed in this essay, so will the growth of the field of Computer Science.\u00a0Just as most people hold the belief that literacy is not involved in the field of Computer Science, many people are unaware of its presence within all STEM fields, whether it be biology, nursing, or engineering. If the\u00a0style of\u00a0teaching programming is holding back the future of programming so drastically by ignoring literacy approaches, imagine how much the world is being held back by this issue.\r\n\r\nAlthough approaching the instruction of computer programming from a literacy point of view is more effective than just the STEM approach\u00a0overall, there are still many individuals that have disadvantages in learning programming\u00a0no matter what\u00a0teaching method that is used. According to Antonio Byrd\u2019s article, \u201cBetween Learning and Opportunity: A Study of African American Coders\u2019 Networks of Support,\u201d racially marginalized individuals are not as likely to develop\u00a0coding\u00a0literacy skills for problem-solving applications (Byrd 31). A core issue for these marginalized communities gaining access to programming knowledge and experience is financial stability. Computer Programming boot camps and college education are both\u00a0very expensive\u00a0investments, which is often not an option for\u00a0individuals from\u00a0marginalized communities. Byrd expands on this by\u00a0stating\u00a0that even those that do not need to pay tuition for coding bootcamps\u00a0are\u00a0required\u00a0to give\u00a0of\u00a0their emotional and physical labor (34). Since coding bootcamps require many hours of work a week, many individuals often\u00a0have to\u00a0take time away from their jobs and\/or their families. This is something that many marginalized people can simply not afford. The study described in this article takes place at Clearwater Academy, where marginalized students do not pay tuition, which taught courses on programming languages such as JavaScript, HTML, and CSS (Byrd 35). The results of this confirm that African American\u00a0adult\u2019s\u00a0access to coding literacy is limited by the social, emotional, and economic repercussions of white supremacy (Byrd 49).\u00a0Unfortunately, there is no one easy solution that completely resolves this\u00a0issue, as it stems from years of oppression and discrimination.\u00a0In order to best combat this issue, universities, training centers, and employers need to take steps to accommodate the needs of marginalized groups. Taking steps in this direction will\u00a0cultivate the field of Computer Science to grow\u00a0exponentially and move towards\u00a0equality.\r\n

Works Cited<\/p>\r\n

Bers, Marina\u00a0Umaschi. \"Coding as another language: a pedagogical approach for teaching\u00a0 computer science in early childhood.\"\u00a0Journal of Computers in Education<\/em>\u00a06.4 (2019):\u00a0 499-528.<\/p>\r\n

Byrd, Antonio. \"Between learning and opportunity: A study of African American coders\u2019\u00a0 networks of support.\" Literacy in Composition Studies 7.2 (2019): 31-56.<\/p>\r\n

Cencelj, Zvonka, et al. \"Role and meaning of functional science, technological and engineering\u00a0 literacy in problem-based learning.\"\u00a0Journal of Baltic Science Education<\/em>\u00a018.1 (2019):\u00a0 132-146.<\/p>\r\n

\u201cClassifying Programming Languages.\u201d\u00a0Pltypes, Loyola Marymount University,<\/p>\r\n

cs.lmu.edu\/~ray\/notes\/pltypes\/.<\/p>\r\n

Dubochet, Gilles. \"Computer Code as a Medium for Human Communication: Are Programming\u00a0 Languages Improving?\" Proceedings of the 21st Working Conference on the Psychology\u00a0 of Programmers Interest Group. No. CONF. University of Limerick, 2009.<\/p>\r\n

Grafwallner, Peg. \u201cEncoding Literacy in Computer Science.\u201d\u00a0Edutopia<\/em>, George Lucas Educational Foundation, 10 Jan. 2018, www.edutopia.org\/article\/encoding-literacy-computer-science.<\/p>\r\n

Harris, Ana. \u201cHuman Languages vs. Programming Languages.\u201d\u00a0Medium<\/em>, Medium, 1 Nov. 2018,\u00a0 medium.com\/@anaharris\/human-languages-vs-programming-languages-c89410f13252.<\/p>\r\n

Hermans,\u00a0Felienne, and Marlies\u00a0Aldewereld. \"Programming is writing is\u00a0 programming.\"\u00a0Companion to the first International Conference on the Art, Science and\u00a0<\/em> Engineering of Programming<\/em>. 2017.<\/p>\r\n

Jacob, Sharin Rawhiya, and Mark Warschauer. \"Computational thinking and literacy.\"\u00a0Journal\u00a0<\/em> of Computer Science Integration<\/em>\u00a01.1. 2018.<\/p>\r\n

Riemer, Marc J. \"Communication skills for the 21st century engineer.\" Global J. of\u00a0Engng.\u00a0 Educ 11.1 (2007): 89-100.<\/p>\r\n

R Hassenfeld, Ziva, et al. \u201cIf You Can Program, You Can Write: Learning Introductory Programming Across Literacy Levels.\u201d\u00a0Journal of Information Technology Education: Research<\/em>, vol. 19, 2020, pp. 065\u2013085., doi:10.28945\/4509.<\/p>\r\n

Schoeman, Marthie. \"Reading skills can predict the programming performance of novices: an eye-tracking study.\"\u00a0Perspectives in Education<\/em>\u00a037.2 (2019): 35-52.<\/p>\r\n

Vee, Annette. \u201cComputer Programming as Literacy.\u201d\u00a0Coding Literacy<\/em>, 2017, pp. 445\u2013452., doi:10.7551\/mitpress\/10655.003.0003.<\/p>","rendered":"

English 102, April 2021<\/h3>\n

Introduction<\/h1>\n

Computer Science is one of the fastest growing fields as the world\u00a0transitions to increased automation.\u00a0Schools of all levels are putting\u00a0a greater\u00a0emphasis on\u00a0educating the younger generation on programming. This\u00a0suggests\u00a0that schools are\u00a0growing their STEM departments, which house the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.\u00a0In order to understand\u00a0why many educators are approaching the field of Computer Science in this way,\u00a0it must be understood what Computer Science is.\u00a0It is\u00a0most commonly defined\u00a0as the study of computer software and computing systems.\u00a0More specifically, it deals with\u00a0creating,\u00a0reading, and error-checking\u00a0programming or code.\u00a0While it is true that STEM is very important within\u00a0the field of\u00a0programming,\u00a0there are other important aspects of coding that are\u00a0not\u00a0frequently\u00a0considered by many educators.\u00a0Coding includes being able to read, write, and communicate\u00a0in a unique way, which\u00a0implies\u00a0that\u00a0literacy involved in the field.\u00a0Any form of literacy that is not directly learning how to read, write, or communicate in standard\u00a0English is often not considered to be literacy, which is a major reason that its importance within programming is not recognized.\u00a0The fact that many educators within the\u00a0field of Computer Science do not realize the importance of literacy\u00a0alludes to the idea that the teaching of\u00a0programming may be flawed in\u00a0its methods and implementation.<\/p>\n

Computer Science is very important in my life,\u00a0as\u00a0I am currently pursuing a degree in the field. I have been programming for just over\u00a0a year\u00a0now\u00a0and have experience in Python and Java programming languages. I have taken three courses\u00a0on\u00a0programming\/computer science\u00a0in college, in which I have learned so much about\u00a0programming and Computer Science in general. In addition to\u00a0coursework, I frequently work on coding projects for my own entertainment and read\/watch articles and videos on programming.\u00a0Any knowledge that I gain\u00a0on\u00a0the most effective ways to learn programming\u00a0is very important to my future.\u00a0Even more important than gaining this knowledge for myself, being able to\u00a0spread this knowledge to grow the field\u00a0is paramount.\u00a0\u00a0Although I am not an expert in programming, I have had many\u00a0learning experiences with programming\u00a0that qualify me to discuss\u00a0my personal experiences with learning how to program.\u00a0Since the focus of this essay\u00a0deals with the teaching methods and learning experiences of programming,\u00a0the relative\u00a0freshness of my\u00a0learning experiences with programming\u00a0provides me with an advantage over\u00a0industry professionals\u00a0in this discussion.<\/p>\n

Writing in Computer Science<\/h1>\n

\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong> Although it may\u00a0be somewhat difficult to discover the parallels between computer programming and literacy, the literacy aspect of\u00a0writing can be understood very easily. When thinking of what a programmer does, one of the\u00a0simplest and\u00a0high-level\u00a0descriptions could be \u201csomeone who writes code.\u201d\u00a0The main similarity between the two practices is the\u00a0exist\u00a0in the\u00a0process of creating a finalized piece of work, whether it be a novel\u00a0for\u00a0an application.\u00a0In\u00a0Felienne\u00a0Hermans and Marlies\u00a0Aldewereld\u2019s\u00a0article, \u201cProgramming is Writing is Programming,\u201d\u00a0the authors describe the\u00a0beginning of the writing process and programming workflow to include a high-level plan (1).\u00a0The next step in both processes is to\u00a0convert these high-level designs into\u00a0low-level, workable steps.\u00a0For\u00a0writers, these\u00a0low-level\u00a0steps include sentences and\u00a0words; for\u00a0programmers, they include methods, functions, and lines of code.\u00a0For both practices, intermediate steps are needed\u00a0manage\u00a0the organization of the work, such as chapters in writing and classes and objects in programming (Hermans and Marlies 2).\u00a0In\u00a0the\u00a0programming course that I am currently enrolled in, every coding assignment that is submitted must be accompanied by\u00a0pseudocode, which is essentially\u00a0a plan for how the final code will look. This pseudocode, which is written in a mix of English and Java syntax,\u00a0begins with high-level plans that are broken down into smaller, more manageable steps. The process of writing\u00a0pseudocode\u00a0was not all that difficult to me when I realized that it was just like the outlines that I have been writing for English courses for years. These outlines\u00a0broke up the goal of the essay into manageable portions and consisted of some wording that would be directly added to the essay and some\u00a0rough ideas that would need to be converted into\u00a0cohesive writing.<\/p>\n

In Ziva R. Hassenfeld\u2019s\u00a0et al\u00a0article,\u00a0\u201cIf you\u00a0can Program you can Write,\u201d\u00a0explores the constructs shared by\u00a0computer programming and writing in\u00a0great detail.\u00a0The authors discuss the similar constructs between the two practices as, \u201cplanning and prewriting, creating and drafting, testing and evaluating, and\u00a0debugging and editing and revising\u201d (Hassenfeld et al.\u00a068).\u00a0The study described in this article, which focuses on the correlation between\u00a0elementary\u00a0student\u2019s ability to write and ability to learn\u00a0programming,\u00a0showed that these similarities between the two practices\u00a0produce a correlation between\u00a0students\u2019 ability to write and their ability to program (Hassenfeld et al.\u00a075).\u00a0In\u00a0the section titled \u201cProgramming as Literacy\u201d of Annette Vee\u2019s novel, \u201cCoding Literacy: How Computer Programming is Changing Writing,\u201d she discusses an extremely interesting\u00a0way to observe the similarities between writing and programming.\u00a0Vee dives into exploring the ways in which\u00a0programming is treated like writing within United States\u00a0law.\u00a0The United States\u00a0Congress amended the 1976 Copywrite Act in 1980 to\u00a0categorize computer code as\u00a0a \u201cliterary work\u201d\u00a0and a \u201cform of writing\u201d (Vee 450).\u00a0Since a law protecting writing and\u00a0forms of creative expression, it can be alluded that\u00a0the United\u00a0States law views computer programming as a form\u00a0of writing.<\/p>\n

Reading in Computer Science<\/h1>\n

Reading is also extremely prevalent within the world of programming and Computer Science in general.\u00a0Peg\u00a0Grafwallner\u2019s\u00a0article, \u201cEncoding Literacy in Computer Science,\u201d\u00a0examines\u00a0an instructional coach and computer science teacher\u2019s\u00a0attempt\u00a0to implement literacy lessons into a computer science class.\u00a0The article states that reading within Computer Science\u00a0requires students to focus on one specific area at a time,\u00a0thinking in a linear and conceptual\u00a0manner (Grafwallner).\u00a0The\u202fcomputer science class\u00a0discussed in this article\u00a0was taught with an emphasis on literacy through directions, ultimately proving to\u202fboost\u202fthe success of the students\u2019 ability to program. The ability to read\u00a0instructions\u00a0was determined to be the most vital skill in programming (Grafwallner).<\/p>\n

In Marthie\u00a0Schoeman\u2019s article, \u201cReading\u00a0Skills\u00a0Can\u00a0Predict the\u00a0Programming\u00a0Performance of\u00a0Novices,\u201d\u00a0the relationship between reading and ability to code is discussed extensively.\u00a0In the study described in the article,\u00a0the reading level of\u00a0students\u00a0were determined using eye-tracking technology. The students then took an introductory course in computer programming that would be followed by a final examination\u00a0(Schoeman\u00a044).\u00a0The results of the study show that students with low reading skills failed the programming component, while those with higher reading skills did better overall. These results depict the fact that reading skills do play a role in one\u2019s ability to learn programming\u00a0(Schoeman\u00a048). This\u00a0relation\u00a0can be attributed\u00a0to the fact that programming is\u00a0a form\u00a0high-level written language in its own sense.\u00a0In my own experiences, reading programming has proved to be one of the most vital skills that a computer\u00a0programmer can possess.\u00a0One of the main points of emphasis within Computer Science classes is being able to read and debug others\u2019 code.\u00a0Since there are so\u00a0many different ways\u00a0that a program can be created, I initially struggled with reading others\u2019 code.\u00a0The skill of reading code is very similar to reading literary works, as\u00a0some authors are naturally easier to follow along with than others. Reading code is a vital aspect of computer programming and is a skill that I am still working on improving.<\/p>\n

Communication in Computer Science<\/h1>\n

Although communication is not necessarily involved in the creation of all computer programs, communication in vital within the professional setting of Computer Science, in addition to\u00a0engaging in\u00a0programming\u00a0within a team\u00a0environment.\u00a0In Gilles\u00a0Dubochet\u2019s\u00a0article, \u201cComputer Code as a Medium for Human Communication,\u201d it is\u00a0stated\u00a0that communication between a human and a computer is the main\u00a0objective\u00a0of computer programming. The article goes on to state that computer programming itself has become a channel for human communication\u00a0(Dubochet\u00a01).\u00a0The article explores the increase in team usage in the field of computer science, suggesting that the ability to understand the code that other\u2019s write is extremely important (2). Understanding the code that others write is\u00a0not only\u00a0dependent on\u00a0one’s\u00a0ability to read and understand\u00a0coding syntax and standards, but also the ability of the person reading the code and the person who wrote the code to communicate\u00a0effectively\u00a0with one another.\u00a0The article suggests that communication is not only\u00a0prevalent through oral dialect, but that programming languages are becoming a channel for communication between programmers (Dubochet\u00a013). In other words, programmers\u00a0are able to\u00a0convey their thoughts through a programming language.<\/p>\n

At the start of my college career, I did not\u00a0expect for\u00a0communication to be as prevalent as it was within my Computer Science courses. Throughout the entire Fall\u00a0Semester\u00a0of my introduction to\u00a0programming\u00a0course, a team of students that we were assigned to were required to code a robot. Due\u00a0to the business of the group members\u2019 schedules, we often had to do portions of the project on our own. This meant that I would often log in to\u00a0add a portion to the code and would be confused by the code that was just written above.\u00a0Through a simple phone call or text,\u00a0all of\u00a0the team members were able to understand the others\u2019 work.\u00a0The communication\u00a0between our team was extremely important for this reason, as the project would have fallen apart without it.\u00a0Throughout the semester, our team began to \u201ccomment\u201d our code, which is simply inserting explanation within the code that do not affect how the code runs. If \u201c\/\/\u201d is used before a line, the\u00a0programming software environment understands that this is just for programmers to read. This simple\u00a0addition to our code meant that we were\u00a0actually\u00a0able\u00a0to\u00a0communicate\u00a0directly\u00a0through\u00a0the code, without having to text, call, or talk at\u00a0all.<\/p>\n

Marc Riemer breaks down the importance of communication and language skills in a broader field of engineering in the article titled, \u201cCommunication Skills for the 21st Century Engineer.\u201d\u00a0Riemer discusses the importance of communication skills\u00a0in engineering, primarily focusing on\u00a0the English language.\u00a0He states that English is the most widespread language in the world and that effective communication in English is a\u00a0skill that develops more successful engineers (91).\u00a0Riemer\u00a0examines\u00a0the importance of\u00a0communication between\u00a0engineers\u00a0and stakeholders\u00a0(95). After\u00a0engineers’\u00a0years of education in upper-level concepts, it can be difficult to\u00a0decipher what stakeholders are familiar and not familiar with. Being able to effectively break down the concepts into more common terminology plays a major role in one\u2019s success within\u00a0the field of Computer Science as well as all other engineering disciplines.\u00a0The findings of this article suggest that an increase in communication and language courses in college curriculums will produce more successful engineers (Riemer 98).\u00a0Although this article focuses more broadly on engineering,\u00a0Computer Science is a major branch of engineering that shares in the same challenges of communication as all other major fields\u00a0of engineering.<\/p>\n

Computer Programming as a Language in\u00a0Itself<\/h1>\n

Computer Programming is much more than a computational practice, as learning programming languages comes with many of the same challenges as learning human languages,\u00a0uncovering\u00a0the fact that computer programming is its own\u00a0unique form of literacy or language. When I was applying for colleges and deciding on a major, I honestly did not know what I wanted to do. I knew that I loved math and problem solving and would want to pursue a career in math-based field. The reason that I chose to pursue a career in Computer Science was purely for this reason, as I have never taken a coding course or had any prior experience. Once I began coding in my collegiate level courses,\u00a0I fell in love with the problem-solving aspect. I was grasping the various coding techniques and\u00a0problem-solving\u00a0methods, but\u00a0found that the portion I was struggling with the most was syntax and coding conventions.\u00a0I thought that learning to program would be like learning Calculus, but, in reality, it\u00a0was\u00a0actually like\u00a0learning a new language.<\/p>\n

The world of programming is extremely complex, with syntax and grammar of its own, comparable to the grammar and structure used in human languages.\u00a0The article, \u201cClassifying Programming languages,\u201d is an excellent source for understanding\u00a0how programming languages are classified and the many similarities and differences between.\u00a0The authors state that there are eight major categories of programming languages,\u00a0categorized by \u201clinguistic structure, expressive features, possibility of efficient implementation, direct support for certain programming models, and similar concerns\u201d (\u201cClassifying Programming Languages\u201d). This\u00a0practice of categorizing languages based on various features is used extensively in human languages also.\u00a0For example, the Romance Languages are all rooted in Latin and have similar sounds, sentence structure, etc.\u00a0The article goes on to explain there are many styles of programming that can be used within one language (\u201cClassifying Programming\u00a0Languages\u201d). This is also a construct that is common\u00a0throughout\u00a0human languages, as there are many styles of writing within the English language.\u00a0Programming languages also have their own grammar and syntax. The grammar portion of coding could be described through common code standards, such as camel case being used for variable\u00a0names or uppercase being used for constant names. The syntax portion of coding is slightly different than in English, as\u00a0errors in\u00a0syntax\u00a0within programming will cause the program to crash, losing functionality.<\/p>\n

In Ana Harris\u2019 article, \u201cHuman Languages vs. Programming Languages,\u201d she breaks down the criteria for something to be considered a language. Harris states that the main\u00a0function of language is communication. She goes on to explain that the function of programming languages is to\u00a0communicate a series of an instructions to a computer or machine, alluding to the idea that programming languages are\u00a0indeed unique forms of literacy\/language.\u00a0Harris zooms in on another major similarity between human languages and programming languages, being structure. She discusses the concepts of semantics\u00a0(meaning connected to a certain concept)\u00a0and syntax\u00a0(rules for aligning words and phrases)\u00a0from the perspective\u00a0of a linguist.\u00a0She states that programming uses semantics, as every program has a specific intention, and syntax, which includes following rules for the use of variables, functions, parenthesis, colons, etc.\u00a0(Harris). These many similarities allow for programming to be considered its own unique form of literacy or language.<\/p>\n

Connection between Literacy Skills and Programming Ability<\/h1>\n

Due to the many parallels between computer programming and literacy, it can be gathered that programming ability and literacy skills\u00a0benefit one another. Although I enjoy and excel in mathematics and problem solving more-so,\u00a0I have always loved reading and writing. Throughout my journey of learning programming, this love and ability has helped to excel in the field.\u00a0Although many of my peers are more advanced than myself in mathematics, this ability has proved to give me a slight upper hand in some aspects of coding. Many of my peers who lack in this ability often have trouble with their code simply because they missed a\u00a0portion of the instruction when reading, misunderstood what was being asked of them,\u00a0or they had trouble recalling the semantics and syntax required for the program.<\/p>\n

In\u00a0Sharin Jacob and\u00a0Mark Warschauer\u2019s article, \u201cComputational Thinking and Literacy,\u201d\u00a0the authors discuss\u00a0how\u00a0literary skills can lead to stronger computational skills.\u00a0The authors describe in detail how computational thinking (computer programming) is a form of literacy, which was discussed earlier extensively (Jacob and Warschauer 3). The authors then switch gears to focus on how literacy\u00a0skills\u00a0can\u00a0improve programming ability.\u00a0The article describes the importance of verbal analysis of game architecture\u00a0to their implementation of game design. The example that the authors use to back up this statement is as follows: The statement \u201cthe hunter killed the monkey\u201d is\u00a0implemented\u00a0into the coding as \u201cthe monkey disappears when it touches the hunter\u201d (Jacob and Warschauer 8). This example shows the importance of one literary element,\u00a0transitive verb structures, to the success of a game developer.\u00a0Jacob and Warschauer state, \u201cstudents cannot master programming syntax without understanding the semantic meaning of commands if they cannot produce correct linguistic forms without considering their corresponding meanings\u201d (10).\u00a0The authors are saying that students are required to use the same skills within literacy courses that they are required to use within programming, just manifest in\u00a0different ways.\u00a0Therefore, skills that are taught in literacy primarily can assist in\u00a0improving programming ability.<\/p>\n

Marthie Schoeman\u2019s article discussed above, \u201cReading Skills\u00a0Can\u00a0Predict the Programming Performance of Novices,\u201d further displays how literacy skill can affect programming performance.\u00a0This article\u00a0discusses a study of the relationship between reading skills and the ability to code. The\u00a0method\u00a0of the study\u00a0involved performing\u00a0an initial\u00a0eye tracking test on participants as they were reading to\u00a0determine\u00a0their reading\u00a0proficiency.\u00a0The participants were then given a short introductory course in programming, which would be followed by a knowledge exam (Schoeman 42).\u00a0The results of the study displayed\u00a0that\u00a0those students\u00a0with low reading skills failed the programming\u00a0component, while students with higher reading skills did better overall (Shoeman 48).\u00a0These results suggest that the literary skill of reading does indeed play a role in one\u2019s ability to learn programming.<\/p>\n

All of\u00a0the findings discussed\u00a0throughout\u00a0the entirety of this essay display the fact that teaching programming to young people more\u00a0similarly\u00a0to the ways\u00a0in which\u00a0that literacy is taught may be more effective than just the typical STEM approach.\u00a0Marina Bers\u2019 article, \u201cCoding as Another Language,\u201d discusses a new method of teaching computer science to young children starting in kindergarten\u00a0called \u201cCoding as Another Language\u201d (499). The method of\u00a0teaching coding described in this article deviates from the typical STEM approach, offering the proposition that computer science teaching can be enhanced by incorporating the design of literacy instruction, due to the parallels that exists between natural languages and programming languages (Bers 504).\u00a0According to Bers, research shows that teaching children how to read and write artificial languages in the same way\u00a0as natural languages leads to a greater cognitive understanding of programming (503).<\/p>\n

In\u00a0Ziva R. Hassenfeld\u2019s et al. article, \u201cIf you can Program you can Write,\u201d the authors examine a study of elementary students learning through the \u201cCoding as Another Language\u201d\u00a0curriculum.\u00a0The article discusses results from a test on literacy and an assessment of students\u2019 understanding of an introductory program language, drawing conclusions based upon their correlation\u00a0(Hassenfeld et al. 73).\u00a0The results of this study show that there is a connection between students\u2019 literacy levels and their height of achievement in grasping an introductory programming language (Hassenfeld et al. 75).\u00a0This indicates that there are fundamental understandings and constructs that are shared by literacy and computer programming, which are described in detail earlier.\u00a0All of\u00a0these articles suggest\u00a0that the instruction of programming in early years is more effective when taught more similarly to literacy instruction than just being taught in the typical STEM approach.<\/p>\n

Conclusion<\/h1>\n

The future of\u00a0Computer Science is\u00a0limitless, due to the increase in automation throughout societies.\u00a0As the field continues to grow,\u00a0programming education will become\u00a0more and more\u00a0prevalent within\u00a0elementary and high schools across the country. The ways in which programming is taught\u00a0needs\u00a0to transition to a more\u00a0literacy-based\u00a0approach for younger children to\u00a0improve\u00a0the effectiveness of\u00a0the education.\u00a0If the instruction of programming evolves according to the findings displayed in this essay, so will the growth of the field of Computer Science.\u00a0Just as most people hold the belief that literacy is not involved in the field of Computer Science, many people are unaware of its presence within all STEM fields, whether it be biology, nursing, or engineering. If the\u00a0style of\u00a0teaching programming is holding back the future of programming so drastically by ignoring literacy approaches, imagine how much the world is being held back by this issue.<\/p>\n

Although approaching the instruction of computer programming from a literacy point of view is more effective than just the STEM approach\u00a0overall, there are still many individuals that have disadvantages in learning programming\u00a0no matter what\u00a0teaching method that is used. According to Antonio Byrd\u2019s article, \u201cBetween Learning and Opportunity: A Study of African American Coders\u2019 Networks of Support,\u201d racially marginalized individuals are not as likely to develop\u00a0coding\u00a0literacy skills for problem-solving applications (Byrd 31). A core issue for these marginalized communities gaining access to programming knowledge and experience is financial stability. Computer Programming boot camps and college education are both\u00a0very expensive\u00a0investments, which is often not an option for\u00a0individuals from\u00a0marginalized communities. Byrd expands on this by\u00a0stating\u00a0that even those that do not need to pay tuition for coding bootcamps\u00a0are\u00a0required\u00a0to give\u00a0of\u00a0their emotional and physical labor (34). Since coding bootcamps require many hours of work a week, many individuals often\u00a0have to\u00a0take time away from their jobs and\/or their families. This is something that many marginalized people can simply not afford. The study described in this article takes place at Clearwater Academy, where marginalized students do not pay tuition, which taught courses on programming languages such as JavaScript, HTML, and CSS (Byrd 35). The results of this confirm that African American\u00a0adult\u2019s\u00a0access to coding literacy is limited by the social, emotional, and economic repercussions of white supremacy (Byrd 49).\u00a0Unfortunately, there is no one easy solution that completely resolves this\u00a0issue, as it stems from years of oppression and discrimination.\u00a0In order to best combat this issue, universities, training centers, and employers need to take steps to accommodate the needs of marginalized groups. Taking steps in this direction will\u00a0cultivate the field of Computer Science to grow\u00a0exponentially and move towards\u00a0equality.<\/p>\n

Works Cited<\/p>\n

Bers, Marina\u00a0Umaschi. “Coding as another language: a pedagogical approach for teaching\u00a0 computer science in early childhood.”\u00a0Journal of Computers in Education<\/em>\u00a06.4 (2019):\u00a0 499-528.<\/p>\n

Byrd, Antonio. “Between learning and opportunity: A study of African American coders\u2019\u00a0 networks of support.” Literacy in Composition Studies 7.2 (2019): 31-56.<\/p>\n

Cencelj, Zvonka, et al. “Role and meaning of functional science, technological and engineering\u00a0 literacy in problem-based learning.”\u00a0Journal of Baltic Science Education<\/em>\u00a018.1 (2019):\u00a0 132-146.<\/p>\n

\u201cClassifying Programming Languages.\u201d\u00a0Pltypes, Loyola Marymount University,<\/p>\n

cs.lmu.edu\/~ray\/notes\/pltypes\/.<\/p>\n

Dubochet, Gilles. “Computer Code as a Medium for Human Communication: Are Programming\u00a0 Languages Improving?” Proceedings of the 21st Working Conference on the Psychology\u00a0 of Programmers Interest Group. No. CONF. University of Limerick, 2009.<\/p>\n

Grafwallner, Peg. \u201cEncoding Literacy in Computer Science.\u201d\u00a0Edutopia<\/em>, George Lucas Educational Foundation, 10 Jan. 2018, www.edutopia.org\/article\/encoding-literacy-computer-science.<\/p>\n

Harris, Ana. \u201cHuman Languages vs. Programming Languages.\u201d\u00a0Medium<\/em>, Medium, 1 Nov. 2018,\u00a0 medium.com\/@anaharris\/human-languages-vs-programming-languages-c89410f13252.<\/p>\n

Hermans,\u00a0Felienne, and Marlies\u00a0Aldewereld. “Programming is writing is\u00a0 programming.”\u00a0Companion to the first International Conference on the Art, Science and\u00a0<\/em> Engineering of Programming<\/em>. 2017.<\/p>\n

Jacob, Sharin Rawhiya, and Mark Warschauer. “Computational thinking and literacy.”\u00a0Journal\u00a0<\/em> of Computer Science Integration<\/em>\u00a01.1. 2018.<\/p>\n

Riemer, Marc J. “Communication skills for the 21st century engineer.” Global J. of\u00a0Engng.\u00a0 Educ 11.1 (2007): 89-100.<\/p>\n

R Hassenfeld, Ziva, et al. \u201cIf You Can Program, You Can Write: Learning Introductory Programming Across Literacy Levels.\u201d\u00a0Journal of Information Technology Education: Research<\/em>, vol. 19, 2020, pp. 065\u2013085., doi:10.28945\/4509.<\/p>\n

Schoeman, Marthie. “Reading skills can predict the programming performance of novices: an eye-tracking study.”\u00a0Perspectives in Education<\/em>\u00a037.2 (2019): 35-52.<\/p>\n

Vee, Annette. \u201cComputer Programming as Literacy.\u201d\u00a0Coding Literacy<\/em>, 2017, pp. 445\u2013452., doi:10.7551\/mitpress\/10655.003.0003.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":253,"menu_order":35,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["parker-2"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[73],"license":[],"class_list":["post-257","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-parker-2"],"part":158,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/257","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/253"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/257\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":579,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/257\/revisions\/579"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/158"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/257\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=257"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=257"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=257"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/understanding-literacy-in-our-lives\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=257"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}