{"id":33,"date":"2026-01-16T20:51:13","date_gmt":"2026-01-16T20:51:13","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/?post_type=chapter&p=33"},"modified":"2026-06-25T20:21:09","modified_gmt":"2026-06-25T20:21:09","slug":"5-the-traditional-and-modern-drugs-abused-by-youth-in-kano","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/chapter\/5-the-traditional-and-modern-drugs-abused-by-youth-in-kano\/","title":{"rendered":"5. The Traditional and Modern Drugs Abused by Youth in Kano"},"content":{"raw":"Mohammed Awaisu Haruna\r\n\r\nThis chapter focuses attention on both the traditional and the modern drugs being abused by the youths in Kano metropolis. The term \u201cdrug,\u201d which is sometimes synonymous with medicine, is a household term in almost every society, modern or traditional. It is a popular term among individuals and groups, young, old, male, and female. The term has been defined and explained in various contexts by different scholars of different times.\r\n\r\nA drug is any substance that causes changes in the human body. These changes and responses may depend on a number of factors, such as the individual level of tolerance, age, gender, dosage, and past experiences with drugs (Musa, 1973). For Kester (1990), a drug is any chemical substance that alters the feelings, thoughts, moods, and actions or behavior of individuals when it is taken into the body. Szasz (1960) medically conceived of drugs as any substance, except food, which, due to its chemical content, affects the functioning and structure of a living organism. Drugs could be regarded as either licit and legal or illicit and illegal. Although there are several meanings, conceptions, and explanations of drug abuse, we can simply define it as \u201cthe excessive, maladaptive, or addictive use of drugs for non-medical purposes despite social, psychological and physical problems that may arise from such use\u201d (Adamu, 2003).\r\n\r\nVariations in the conceptions and definitions of a drug is a clear indication that the term is broadly defined, used not only for chemo and oral therapies, but also for traditional or indigenous alcoholic drinks that include burkutu<\/em>, ogogoro<\/em>, banmi<\/em>, and fito.<\/em> Other traditional substances that affect human behavior and are regarded as drugs include hankufa<\/em> (medicinal under a tree), zakami<\/em> (thairy thorn apple), goro<\/em> (kola nut), taba-gari<\/em> (powdered tobacco), and a bitter root usually imported from Cameroon that is popularly known as dankamaru<\/em> (Abdullahi, 2003). Gagai<\/em> and other locally generated and produced substances, such as lizard secretions, gutter, and pit-toiletare also considered drugs (Amina, 2006). In recent years, some of the Kano youths that abuse drugs take them in the form of a tea known as gadagi<\/em> (Abdullahi, 2003). Other brands of stimulant drinks include herbal tea<\/em> and sada tea<\/em>. Some of these traditional drugs and a selection of some modern drugs are discussed in the proceeding sections.\r\n

Traditional Drugs with Addictive Potentials<\/h2>\r\nTraditional drugs have been used and abused worldwide in almost all societies by both old and young men and women irrespective of cultural or religious and geographical variations. The traditional drugs of abuse in Nigeria are generally those that are used as stimulants, even before the advent of modern Western medicine. In this section, some of these traditional stimulants are discussed as well as the possible reasons for abuse. They are classified into mild and powerful traditional stimulants.\r\n

Mild Stimulants<\/h2>\r\n

Kola nuts<\/h3>\r\nThe kola nut is a traditionally and culturally approved of substance that is grown in the Western part of Nigeria. Its use is legal and cuts across the sub-culture, age, socio-economic, and religious variations. It is very significant in the lives of Nigerians in that it is a sign of peace, allegiance, and acceptance in patron\/client relationships, betrothal, marriage, and other ceremonies, conflict resolution, during the exchange of visits, and religious rituals. It is medicinal in that it serves as a deterrent against vomiting for a number of people. It is also used by evil men for sorcery, divination, and magic. Its use serves as a safety valve against the use and abuse of modern stimulant drugs.\r\n\r\nTo most youths, kola nut is a substance that is used to alleviate tiredness or prevent sleeplessness. In other words, the kola nut is seen as a mild central nervous system stimulant. Both short and long-distance drivers use it to stay awake so as to avoid sleeping while driving. Students also chew kola nuts to keep them awake during examinations. Its use is becoming common, particularly during formal meetings of various Government and Nongovernmental Organizations at the Federal, State, and Local levels. When individuals use it regularly, they become habituated; it gradually affects their health, with particular impact on cardiovascular health as well as impacting blood pressure.\r\n

Tobacco<\/h3>\r\nThe use and abuse of tobacco is an old habit among Nigerians. Ground leaves of tobacco are chewed and kept wet in the mouth by users, and it is removed only when the user wants to take food or a drink or when they go to sleep. The leaves are also locally rolled and smoked as tunkura<\/em>. The ground leaves are known among the Hausa in Kano as taba-gari (powdered tobacco) and sold to consumers for easy use. Those who use it become addicted and their lips, teeth, and tongues turn reddish, and they spit from time to time. Although the excessive use and abuse of tunkura and taba-gari was popular in the metropolis, its use is drastically on the decline due to the availability of cigarettes. The society views its use as a deviation because it is physically and socially harmful to the individual users and the society.\r\n

Burkutu<\/h3>\r\nBurkutu is a locally produced alcoholic drink brewed in Hausa land since before the advent of Islam, colonialism, and the introduction of Western alcoholic drinks. It was very common among the Maguzawa <\/em>(believers of traditional religion). Until the recent introduction of Shari\u2019a in Kano, burkutu was consumed in large quantities by youths in both the rural and urban areas of Kano. Nowadays, its use is on the decline, especially in the metropolis, because of the introduction of the Shari\u2019a as well as the extra vigilance and special attention on the restriction of the movement, use, and marketing of both local and Western alcoholic beverages. As speculation has it, only in Bukavu and Janguza Army barracks is burkutu freely sold and consumed. It is still produced and used on market days in rural areas far away Kano and on other important occasions such as festivals, marriages, and naming ceremonies, particularly among the Maguzawa<\/em>.\r\n

Powerful Stimulants<\/h2>\r\n

Hankufa<\/h3>\r\nHankufa is a traditional drug with a powerful stimulant effect. It provides extra energy to the users. It was commonly used by those who traveled for long distances or those who go on hunting expedition in search of prey. In addition, it gives the power and energy to confront rival hunting groups, who sometimes engage in fierce fighting over a catch or hunting territory. In fact, it makes the users fearless and tireless. Its use is not limited to the hunters alone, but is fed to their hunting dogs, as it makes them more energetic and able to run faster. It is alleged that some members of the Bori<\/em> cult in Hausa land use hankufa as a stimulant to keep on jumping and falling on their buttocks without feeling any pain. Hankufa makes the mouth dry, releasing white foam instead of saliva. Although its use was more common in the rural and suburban areas, it is used and abused in and around the Kano metropolis by some youths. Abdullahi (2003) reported that it is mixed up with gadagi in a separate teapot for a category of users who are not satisfied with the mild stimulant effects of ordinary gadagi alone. It is usually served on request.\r\n

Zakami<\/h3>\r\nThis is another stimulant that has been in use for many years among Hausa youth in Kano. Farmers in the rural areas, especially the youths, use it to give them energy during the planting and harvesting seasons. It enables them to work on the farm for longer hours. They also take it during community development projects (the construction of roads and bridges) and self-help work, such as farming, planting, and harvesting, when youths participate voluntarily. Zakami is usually put in a locally prepared drink (kunun zaki<\/em>) that is made from millet. Sugar is added to taste.\r\n

Gadagi<\/h3>\r\nGadagi is generally regarded as tea with a difference and is the most popular of all traditional stimulant drugs among the Kano commercial motorcyclists (Yan\u2019 acaba<\/em>). Gadagi contains various stimulant ingredients, such as leaves, roots, and chips of different trees. Gadagi enables the users to \u201cachieve purposes such as stimulation, medication, agitation and the total ability to endure any hardship involved in goal attainment\u201d (Abdullahi, 2003, p. 10) through a combination of several indigenous substances used during production.\r\n\r\nThis drug is used to excess by a large number of youths who engage in different occupations. As mentioned earlier, the most conspicuous group of youths who uses gadagi are the commercial motor cyclists, who move from one location to another in the metropolis, picking up and dropping off passengers. They operate throughout the day, regardless of sun, heat, or rain. Some of them take gadagi two to three times a day so as to maintain energy levels and to be able to work for a number of hours. On the uses of gadagi, a commercial motorcyclist disclosed that:\r\n
Gadagi as medicinal is a different thing to different people, defending on the individual concerned: it is medicine against the impact of the sun on those that work particularly during the dry season like me (Danacaba<\/em>). It reduces fatigue to a minimum, it keeps one awake, reduces the chances of becoming impotent, reduces fat and sugar in the body to a low level. It is a medicine for people with piles and yellow fever. (Abdullahi, 2003, p. 12)<\/blockquote>\r\nThe use of gadagi seems to be rapidly becoming widespread in Kano. It is alleged that youths who play football take it before a training session. The same applies to police men on night patrol duty and long distance and commuter drivers. Gadagi is made more powerful and effective when it is mixed with other substances. Some users make a special request for a brand of gadagi known as Cockroach mixture (a mixture of gadagi with Nescafe). Others buy a mixture of gadagi and alabokum.<\/em> The consumption of gadagi is on the rise because it is a legal tea.\r\n

Modern Drugs with Addictive Potentials<\/h2>\r\nThe advent of colonialism and modern medicine is associated with the introduction of modern drugs for the treatment of ailments, illnesses, and diseases. A number of modern drugs are abused by youths in Kano. Some of these drugs include alcoholic drinks, marijuana, tranquillizers, and solvents. Use and abuse varies depending on a number of factors, including the nature of one\u2019s occupation, the availability and access to the substance, and the age and sex of the abuser.\r\n\r\nOdejide (1979) and Oshodin (1981) report that alcohol is one of the most commonly abused substances in Nigeria, followed by marijuana and other substances. Despite societal rejection and legal prohibitions, marijuana is commonly and publicly abused by Kano youths. The Kano State Shari\u2019a Commission seems to pay more attention to alcoholic drinks rather than other substances of abuse. These drugs are easily accessible to the youths in Kano.\r\n

Stimulant Substances<\/h2>\r\nThese are drugs that induce a stimulation of the central nervous system. The most common stimulants known worldwide include cocaine, amphetamines, alcoholic drinks, marijuana, caffeine, and nicotine. Cocaine and amphetamines are classified among the major stimulants, while the rest are among the minor ones.\r\n

Marijuana<\/h3>\r\nThe term \u201cmarijuana\u201d is believed to have originated from a Portuguese word, guan go,<\/em> which means intoxicant and is a potent psychoactive substance. Cannabis sativa<\/em>, another name for a brand of marijuana, is a hemp plant that is commonly grown in most nations throughout the world (Maisto, Galizio, & Cornor, 1999). When consumed in a large quantity, it serves as a stimulant and makes youths very active. In Kano, marijuana is the most popular drug of abuse.\r\n\r\nIt is popularly known in Kano as ganye<\/em> (leaf), but it is also known by other names such as wee wee<\/em> and ganja<\/em>. Whenever the word ganye is mentioned, most people undoubtedly know that it simply means marijuana. The substance is very common and available in different locations throughout the state, especially in the urban centers. Some of these locations, as mentioned by Dawakin Tofa (2003), include the Kano Pillars Stadium at Sabongari and the Sani Abacha Stadium at Kofar Mata, where the substance is sold and smoked freely by youths. Other notable places are motor stations, including Kofar Ruwa, Naibawa, Kofar Kabuga, and the area around Kasuwar Rimi (the Rimi Market), Kasuwar Kurmi (the Kurmi Market), football pitches, and cinema houses.\r\n\r\nThe youths who abuse marijuana in Kano are below the age of 30. In a study of drug addicts at the Dawanau Rehabilitation Centre, Haruna and Abdullahi (1991) discovered that 38% of the patients receiving treatment abused marijuana as opposed to 16% who abused alcohol. All the marijuana abusers fell between the ages of 24 and 28. Similarly, in a study of marijuana abusers in Bayero University, Yahaya (2007) discovered that 83% of the students who abuse marijuana are between the ages of 20 and 29. Youths who abuse marijuana face a number of problems. The most common and conspicuous is unusual and unnecessary laughter. Others include day-dreaming and panic attacks. Some of the chronic abusers release an unpleasant odor.\r\n

Alcohol<\/h3>\r\nShari\u2019a Law in the state is most concerned and has directed its effort at prohibiting the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic drinks. Beer production companies have been shut down and all the publicly conceivable retail and wholesale businesses providing alcoholic drinks have moved out of Kano to the neighboring non-Shari\u2019a states of the north. Despite this, it is apparent that the sale and consumption of alcohol is still carried out in the state.\r\n

Caffeine<\/h3>\r\nCaffeine is a mild central nervous system stimulant that is abused in the form of coffee, tea, cocoa, cola beverages, or flavored drinks. Youths in institutions of higher learning, offices, and other places of work take it as a stimulant and those who use it in excess abuse it. The intake of caffeine is associated with a number of diseases, including diabetes, peptic ulcers, stroke, and gastric and binary tract ulcers. In addition to these, people who abuse caffeine experience nervousness, restlessness, insomnia, and excitement.\r\n

Amphetamines<\/h3>\r\nAmphetamines are another nervous system stimulant that are commonly abused. Some of the mental effects of amphetamine abuse include increased alertness and energy, a decreased appetite, increased euphoria, and raised blood pressure (Radda, 2006). Amphetamines are the most commonly abused stimulant drugs by youths in Kano; they are so popular that they are called by different names, such as kafi-allura<\/em> (more potent than any stimulant), aji-garau<\/em> (feel strong), and arungunmi zaki<\/em> (being stronger than a lion). Those who abuse amphetamines include farmers, drivers, tailors, truck-pushers, motor mechanics, some market women, and food sellers, among others (Amina, 2006).\r\n

Cocaine<\/h3>\r\nCocaine is mainly abused by youths in Nigerian cities that include Lagos, Ibadan, Kaduna, Kano, Enugu, Port Harcourt, Benin, Calabar, and Abuja, among others. Initially the abuse of cocaine was limited to a few individuals who could afford to purchase it because of its price. However, in recent times, the price of cocaine has fallen; as a result, its purchase and abuse among youths has been on the increase (UNDCP, 1999).\r\n\r\nAs a very powerful stimulant drug, cocaine has a high psycho-toxicity and excessively stimulates the central nervous system. The most common method of cocaine intake among Kano youths is by sniffing and this induces nostril and mouth ulcers. Other effects include artificial euphoria, increased heartrate, high blood pressure, depression, and paranoia. It is due to its dangerous and multiple effects that it has been nicknamed hodar Iblis<\/em> (Satanic powder).\r\n

Tranquilizers<\/h3>\r\nThese are a category of drugs commonly abused and include Valium, Librium, Diazepam, Ativan, Magadon, Mandrax, and Lexaton. Tranquillizers, popularly known as depressants or sedatives, are swallowed as tablets and capsules, though some of them are abused in the form of syrups designed to relieve anxiety and stress, promote or induce sleep, or as a relaxant. They have a serious impact in terms of causing drowsiness, forgetfulness, and weakness. These drugs are readily available and are purchased from patent medicine stores that by Law should be registered and handled by qualified and competent pharmacists. Valium and different kinds of cough syrups, in particular Banylin, are the most commonly abused depressants among youths in Kano\r\n

Inhalants<\/h3>\r\nToxic inhalants refer to volatile substances that can be abused by sniffing their vapor. The substances are poisonous and include nitrous oxide (laughing gas), hydrocarbon (solvents), chloro-hyrocarbon (aerosols) and amyl or butyl nitrite (poppers or snoppers). These chemicals are ingredients that make up items such as glues, plastic cement, gas lighter fluid, deodorant, air fresheners, paints, and correction fluids. Other forms of inhalants are the steams from latrines and gutters. These are obtained at no cost. The abusers go to the latrine or gutter early in the morning to sniff the steam that alters mood and perception (Yakubu, 2006). The drug abusers derive no medical benefits, but instead suffer from social, psychological, and biological consequences. The substances change the mood of the users, who also suffer from mental disorder, liver, and kidney problems. Under the influence of these organic substances, the abusers escape from reality and get involved in crimes and violence, which has bedeviled not only Kano, but also the whole country.\r\n\r\nThe most commonly abused toxic inhalants by youths in Kano include glue, lighter fluid, paint fumes, nail polish, rubber solutions, kerosene, and fuel. These inhalants are common and the youth have easy access to them. In a number of families, women keep their cosmetics in places where their children have easy and unlimited access to them. Most parents and sisters are not aware that nail polish could be used as a substitute for drugs and, as a result children, take advantage of this ignorance to take nail polish from home. They sniff these agents to derive satisfaction.\r\n\r\nAs for glue and fuel, they are easily available for sale and are inexpensive. Some of the youths get fuel easily from abandoned vehicles or from garages where cars are kept for repairs. Others get the fuel from roadside sellers. Most of the sellers are themselves drug abusers and some of them abuse inhalants, rubber solutions, lemon, paw-paw, and guava leaves. Others include gutter water known as Jamba<\/em> in Hausa, frog secretions, and lizard excretes (Yakubu, 2006). Most of the abusers take a combination of the modern and traditional drugs.\r\n

Summary<\/h2>\r\nThe chapter examined the abuse of traditional and modern drugs by the youth in Kano. The first part of the paper focused its attention on both the major and minor traditional drugs that have addictive potentiality. The former include Kolanut, tobacco, burkutu, <\/em>and the later include hankufa, <\/em>zakami,<\/em> and gadagi. The second part of the paper covered some of the modern drugs abused by the youth; these include marijuana, alcohol, caffeine, amphetamines, cocaine, tranquillizers, and inhalants.\r\n\r\nUnder the influence of drugs, the youth abuser may behave in the most abnormal and extra ordinary manner by engaging in all kinds of social vices and crimes. The abusers, in particular commercial motorcyclists, are involved in serious road accidents and some of them are capable of committing murder, rape, and armed robbery. Those who engage in the abuse of drugs tend to lose their honor as do their families. Their children are sometimes affected by the stigma and find it difficult to get marriage partners in the community. The abuse of both traditional and modern drugs is socially, morally, and religiously unacceptable among the people of Kano. This is one of the reasons why it generally attracts condemnation and a very powerful stigma, from which the abuser loses self respect and is perceived as a problem to himself and the society.\r\n

Recommendations<\/h2>\r\nThe following recommendations may be considered for the control and reduction of drug abuse among youths in Kano:\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. The National Drugs Law Enforcement Agency should intensify efforts to identify the various places where marijuana is purchased and used by youth in Kano. Those apprehended should be promptly prosecuted.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. The Kano State Ministry of Education should enlighten and educate students in particular and youth in general about the danger of drug abuse and tell people to shun the use of all kinds of drugs.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Women at home should keep away their cosmetics from children in order to deny them access to inhalants such as deodorant, air-freshener, and nail polish.<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. The Law prohibiting the sale of drugs by Pharmaceuticals and other Drug Stores to individuals without doctor\u2019s prescription should be effectively enforced.<\/li>\r\n \t
  5. The consumption of harmful traditional drugs should be banned, in particular the use of addictive ingredients in tea such as gadagi.<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n

    References<\/h2>\r\n

    Abdullahi, S. A. (2003) the Use of Traditional Drugs amongst the Kano Youth: The Case of Gadagi.<\/em> In Abdulrashid Garba (ed.), Youth and Drug Abuse in Nigeria: Strategies for Counseling, Management and Control.<\/p>\r\n

    Adamu, A.U. (2003) Preface.<\/em> In Abdulrashid Garba (ed.), Youth and Drug Abuse in Nigeria: Strategies for counseling, Management and Control.<\/p>\r\n

    Dawakin Tofa, B. S. (2003) Illicit Drug Distribution Network in Kano Metropolitan<\/em>. In Abdulrashid Garba (ed.), Youth and Drug Abuse in Nigeria: Strategies for counseling, Management and Control.<\/p>\r\n

    Haruna, M. A. and Abdullahi, S.A. (1991) Poverty and drug Abuse: A Study of Dawanau Rehabilitation Center, Kano State.<\/em> In Last, M. and Khalil, S. (ed.) Kano studies (Special issues), pp 23-39<\/p>\r\n

    Haruna, M.A. (2005) Substance Abuse in Nigeria: A Psycho-Social Analysis<\/em>. In Suleiman, A.G. (ed.), Readings in Applied Psychology.<\/p>\r\n

    Kester, T. (1990) Drug Education: An Effective Measure to the Prevention of Drug Abuse. The Adult Education Journal; Vol. 6 N0. 5.<\/p>\r\n

    Maisto, S.A.; Galizio, M.; Cornor, G.J. (1999) Drug Use and Abuse.<\/em> New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.<\/p>\r\n

    Musa, Y.Q. (1973) Secondary Environmental Science Methods. <\/em>London: Tavistoch Publication.<\/p>\r\n

    NAFDAC (2000) The Role of NAFDAC in the Prevention and Control of Drugs in Nigeria: Its Relationship and Expectation from Community\/NGOS\/CBOS. <\/em>A Paper presented at One-Day Conference organized by Youth Society for the Prevention of Infectious Diseases and Social Vices, Kano Foundation Building.<\/p>\r\n

    Odejide, A.0. (1979) Alcohol Use in Sub-group of Literate Nigerians.<\/em> African Journal of Psychiatry. 1(2)<\/p>\r\n

    Oshodin, G.O. (1981) Alcohol Abuse: A case Study of Secondary School Students in Rural Areas of Benin District.<\/em> Nigeria Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 8<\/p>\r\n

    Radda, S.I. (2006) Drug Abuse and Its Consequences on the Youth.<\/em> In Dalhatu, S. (ed.) Essays on Local Government Administration: Fostering Better Service Delivery, Record keeping, Accountability and Empowerment ay the Local Government.<\/p>\r\n

    Suleiman, B. Mohamed (2006) Issues of Drug abuse and Addiction in Nigeria.<\/em> In Dalhatu, S., Essays On Local Government Administration: Fostering Better Service Delivery, Record keeping, Accountability and Empowerment ay the Local Government.<\/p>\r\n

    Szasz, T. (1975) Ceremonial Chemistry: A Ritual Persecution of Drug Addicts and Pushers.<\/em> (Rautledge and Keegan Paul Ltd, Broadway House)<\/p>\r\n

    Tasa, D. (20006) The Legal and Institutional Framework for the Control of Drug Abuse and Related Problems.<\/em> In Dalhatu, S., Essays On Local Government Administration: Fostering Better Service Delivery, Record keeping, Accountability and Empowerment ay the Local Government,<\/p>\r\n

    UNDCP (1999) Report of the Rapid Situation Assessment of Drug Abuse in Nigeria. November, 1999<\/p>\r\n

    World Health organization (1991)<\/p>\r\n

    Yahaya, A. B. (2006) Indian hemp Smoking Among Undergraduate University Students: A Study of Undergraduate Students of Bayero University, Kano.<\/em> Unpublished M. Sc. Thesis submitted to the School of Post-Graduate Studies, Bayero University Kano.<\/p>\r\n

    Yakubu, Amina (2006) Types of Drugs commonly Used and their Availability at community Level<\/em>. In Dalhatu, S., Essays On Local Government Administration: Fostering Better Service Delivery, Record keeping, Accountability and Empowerment ay the Local Government.<\/p>","rendered":"

    Mohammed Awaisu Haruna<\/p>\n

    This chapter focuses attention on both the traditional and the modern drugs being abused by the youths in Kano metropolis. The term \u201cdrug,\u201d which is sometimes synonymous with medicine, is a household term in almost every society, modern or traditional. It is a popular term among individuals and groups, young, old, male, and female. The term has been defined and explained in various contexts by different scholars of different times.<\/p>\n

    A drug is any substance that causes changes in the human body. These changes and responses may depend on a number of factors, such as the individual level of tolerance, age, gender, dosage, and past experiences with drugs (Musa, 1973). For Kester (1990), a drug is any chemical substance that alters the feelings, thoughts, moods, and actions or behavior of individuals when it is taken into the body. Szasz (1960) medically conceived of drugs as any substance, except food, which, due to its chemical content, affects the functioning and structure of a living organism. Drugs could be regarded as either licit and legal or illicit and illegal. Although there are several meanings, conceptions, and explanations of drug abuse, we can simply define it as \u201cthe excessive, maladaptive, or addictive use of drugs for non-medical purposes despite social, psychological and physical problems that may arise from such use\u201d (Adamu, 2003).<\/p>\n

    Variations in the conceptions and definitions of a drug is a clear indication that the term is broadly defined, used not only for chemo and oral therapies, but also for traditional or indigenous alcoholic drinks that include burkutu<\/em>, ogogoro<\/em>, banmi<\/em>, and fito.<\/em> Other traditional substances that affect human behavior and are regarded as drugs include hankufa<\/em> (medicinal under a tree), zakami<\/em> (thairy thorn apple), goro<\/em> (kola nut), taba-gari<\/em> (powdered tobacco), and a bitter root usually imported from Cameroon that is popularly known as dankamaru<\/em> (Abdullahi, 2003). Gagai<\/em> and other locally generated and produced substances, such as lizard secretions, gutter, and pit-toiletare also considered drugs (Amina, 2006). In recent years, some of the Kano youths that abuse drugs take them in the form of a tea known as gadagi<\/em> (Abdullahi, 2003). Other brands of stimulant drinks include herbal tea<\/em> and sada tea<\/em>. Some of these traditional drugs and a selection of some modern drugs are discussed in the proceeding sections.<\/p>\n

    Traditional Drugs with Addictive Potentials<\/h2>\n

    Traditional drugs have been used and abused worldwide in almost all societies by both old and young men and women irrespective of cultural or religious and geographical variations. The traditional drugs of abuse in Nigeria are generally those that are used as stimulants, even before the advent of modern Western medicine. In this section, some of these traditional stimulants are discussed as well as the possible reasons for abuse. They are classified into mild and powerful traditional stimulants.<\/p>\n

    Mild Stimulants<\/h2>\n

    Kola nuts<\/h3>\n

    The kola nut is a traditionally and culturally approved of substance that is grown in the Western part of Nigeria. Its use is legal and cuts across the sub-culture, age, socio-economic, and religious variations. It is very significant in the lives of Nigerians in that it is a sign of peace, allegiance, and acceptance in patron\/client relationships, betrothal, marriage, and other ceremonies, conflict resolution, during the exchange of visits, and religious rituals. It is medicinal in that it serves as a deterrent against vomiting for a number of people. It is also used by evil men for sorcery, divination, and magic. Its use serves as a safety valve against the use and abuse of modern stimulant drugs.<\/p>\n

    To most youths, kola nut is a substance that is used to alleviate tiredness or prevent sleeplessness. In other words, the kola nut is seen as a mild central nervous system stimulant. Both short and long-distance drivers use it to stay awake so as to avoid sleeping while driving. Students also chew kola nuts to keep them awake during examinations. Its use is becoming common, particularly during formal meetings of various Government and Nongovernmental Organizations at the Federal, State, and Local levels. When individuals use it regularly, they become habituated; it gradually affects their health, with particular impact on cardiovascular health as well as impacting blood pressure.<\/p>\n

    Tobacco<\/h3>\n

    The use and abuse of tobacco is an old habit among Nigerians. Ground leaves of tobacco are chewed and kept wet in the mouth by users, and it is removed only when the user wants to take food or a drink or when they go to sleep. The leaves are also locally rolled and smoked as tunkura<\/em>. The ground leaves are known among the Hausa in Kano as taba-gari (powdered tobacco) and sold to consumers for easy use. Those who use it become addicted and their lips, teeth, and tongues turn reddish, and they spit from time to time. Although the excessive use and abuse of tunkura and taba-gari was popular in the metropolis, its use is drastically on the decline due to the availability of cigarettes. The society views its use as a deviation because it is physically and socially harmful to the individual users and the society.<\/p>\n

    Burkutu<\/h3>\n

    Burkutu is a locally produced alcoholic drink brewed in Hausa land since before the advent of Islam, colonialism, and the introduction of Western alcoholic drinks. It was very common among the Maguzawa <\/em>(believers of traditional religion). Until the recent introduction of Shari\u2019a in Kano, burkutu was consumed in large quantities by youths in both the rural and urban areas of Kano. Nowadays, its use is on the decline, especially in the metropolis, because of the introduction of the Shari\u2019a as well as the extra vigilance and special attention on the restriction of the movement, use, and marketing of both local and Western alcoholic beverages. As speculation has it, only in Bukavu and Janguza Army barracks is burkutu freely sold and consumed. It is still produced and used on market days in rural areas far away Kano and on other important occasions such as festivals, marriages, and naming ceremonies, particularly among the Maguzawa<\/em>.<\/p>\n

    Powerful Stimulants<\/h2>\n

    Hankufa<\/h3>\n

    Hankufa is a traditional drug with a powerful stimulant effect. It provides extra energy to the users. It was commonly used by those who traveled for long distances or those who go on hunting expedition in search of prey. In addition, it gives the power and energy to confront rival hunting groups, who sometimes engage in fierce fighting over a catch or hunting territory. In fact, it makes the users fearless and tireless. Its use is not limited to the hunters alone, but is fed to their hunting dogs, as it makes them more energetic and able to run faster. It is alleged that some members of the Bori<\/em> cult in Hausa land use hankufa as a stimulant to keep on jumping and falling on their buttocks without feeling any pain. Hankufa makes the mouth dry, releasing white foam instead of saliva. Although its use was more common in the rural and suburban areas, it is used and abused in and around the Kano metropolis by some youths. Abdullahi (2003) reported that it is mixed up with gadagi in a separate teapot for a category of users who are not satisfied with the mild stimulant effects of ordinary gadagi alone. It is usually served on request.<\/p>\n

    Zakami<\/h3>\n

    This is another stimulant that has been in use for many years among Hausa youth in Kano. Farmers in the rural areas, especially the youths, use it to give them energy during the planting and harvesting seasons. It enables them to work on the farm for longer hours. They also take it during community development projects (the construction of roads and bridges) and self-help work, such as farming, planting, and harvesting, when youths participate voluntarily. Zakami is usually put in a locally prepared drink (kunun zaki<\/em>) that is made from millet. Sugar is added to taste.<\/p>\n

    Gadagi<\/h3>\n

    Gadagi is generally regarded as tea with a difference and is the most popular of all traditional stimulant drugs among the Kano commercial motorcyclists (Yan\u2019 acaba<\/em>). Gadagi contains various stimulant ingredients, such as leaves, roots, and chips of different trees. Gadagi enables the users to \u201cachieve purposes such as stimulation, medication, agitation and the total ability to endure any hardship involved in goal attainment\u201d (Abdullahi, 2003, p. 10) through a combination of several indigenous substances used during production.<\/p>\n

    This drug is used to excess by a large number of youths who engage in different occupations. As mentioned earlier, the most conspicuous group of youths who uses gadagi are the commercial motor cyclists, who move from one location to another in the metropolis, picking up and dropping off passengers. They operate throughout the day, regardless of sun, heat, or rain. Some of them take gadagi two to three times a day so as to maintain energy levels and to be able to work for a number of hours. On the uses of gadagi, a commercial motorcyclist disclosed that:<\/p>\n

    Gadagi as medicinal is a different thing to different people, defending on the individual concerned: it is medicine against the impact of the sun on those that work particularly during the dry season like me (Danacaba<\/em>). It reduces fatigue to a minimum, it keeps one awake, reduces the chances of becoming impotent, reduces fat and sugar in the body to a low level. It is a medicine for people with piles and yellow fever. (Abdullahi, 2003, p. 12)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

    The use of gadagi seems to be rapidly becoming widespread in Kano. It is alleged that youths who play football take it before a training session. The same applies to police men on night patrol duty and long distance and commuter drivers. Gadagi is made more powerful and effective when it is mixed with other substances. Some users make a special request for a brand of gadagi known as Cockroach mixture (a mixture of gadagi with Nescafe). Others buy a mixture of gadagi and alabokum.<\/em> The consumption of gadagi is on the rise because it is a legal tea.<\/p>\n

    Modern Drugs with Addictive Potentials<\/h2>\n

    The advent of colonialism and modern medicine is associated with the introduction of modern drugs for the treatment of ailments, illnesses, and diseases. A number of modern drugs are abused by youths in Kano. Some of these drugs include alcoholic drinks, marijuana, tranquillizers, and solvents. Use and abuse varies depending on a number of factors, including the nature of one\u2019s occupation, the availability and access to the substance, and the age and sex of the abuser.<\/p>\n

    Odejide (1979) and Oshodin (1981) report that alcohol is one of the most commonly abused substances in Nigeria, followed by marijuana and other substances. Despite societal rejection and legal prohibitions, marijuana is commonly and publicly abused by Kano youths. The Kano State Shari\u2019a Commission seems to pay more attention to alcoholic drinks rather than other substances of abuse. These drugs are easily accessible to the youths in Kano.<\/p>\n

    Stimulant Substances<\/h2>\n

    These are drugs that induce a stimulation of the central nervous system. The most common stimulants known worldwide include cocaine, amphetamines, alcoholic drinks, marijuana, caffeine, and nicotine. Cocaine and amphetamines are classified among the major stimulants, while the rest are among the minor ones.<\/p>\n

    Marijuana<\/h3>\n

    The term \u201cmarijuana\u201d is believed to have originated from a Portuguese word, guan go,<\/em> which means intoxicant and is a potent psychoactive substance. Cannabis sativa<\/em>, another name for a brand of marijuana, is a hemp plant that is commonly grown in most nations throughout the world (Maisto, Galizio, & Cornor, 1999). When consumed in a large quantity, it serves as a stimulant and makes youths very active. In Kano, marijuana is the most popular drug of abuse.<\/p>\n

    It is popularly known in Kano as ganye<\/em> (leaf), but it is also known by other names such as wee wee<\/em> and ganja<\/em>. Whenever the word ganye is mentioned, most people undoubtedly know that it simply means marijuana. The substance is very common and available in different locations throughout the state, especially in the urban centers. Some of these locations, as mentioned by Dawakin Tofa (2003), include the Kano Pillars Stadium at Sabongari and the Sani Abacha Stadium at Kofar Mata, where the substance is sold and smoked freely by youths. Other notable places are motor stations, including Kofar Ruwa, Naibawa, Kofar Kabuga, and the area around Kasuwar Rimi (the Rimi Market), Kasuwar Kurmi (the Kurmi Market), football pitches, and cinema houses.<\/p>\n

    The youths who abuse marijuana in Kano are below the age of 30. In a study of drug addicts at the Dawanau Rehabilitation Centre, Haruna and Abdullahi (1991) discovered that 38% of the patients receiving treatment abused marijuana as opposed to 16% who abused alcohol. All the marijuana abusers fell between the ages of 24 and 28. Similarly, in a study of marijuana abusers in Bayero University, Yahaya (2007) discovered that 83% of the students who abuse marijuana are between the ages of 20 and 29. Youths who abuse marijuana face a number of problems. The most common and conspicuous is unusual and unnecessary laughter. Others include day-dreaming and panic attacks. Some of the chronic abusers release an unpleasant odor.<\/p>\n

    Alcohol<\/h3>\n

    Shari\u2019a Law in the state is most concerned and has directed its effort at prohibiting the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic drinks. Beer production companies have been shut down and all the publicly conceivable retail and wholesale businesses providing alcoholic drinks have moved out of Kano to the neighboring non-Shari\u2019a states of the north. Despite this, it is apparent that the sale and consumption of alcohol is still carried out in the state.<\/p>\n

    Caffeine<\/h3>\n

    Caffeine is a mild central nervous system stimulant that is abused in the form of coffee, tea, cocoa, cola beverages, or flavored drinks. Youths in institutions of higher learning, offices, and other places of work take it as a stimulant and those who use it in excess abuse it. The intake of caffeine is associated with a number of diseases, including diabetes, peptic ulcers, stroke, and gastric and binary tract ulcers. In addition to these, people who abuse caffeine experience nervousness, restlessness, insomnia, and excitement.<\/p>\n

    Amphetamines<\/h3>\n

    Amphetamines are another nervous system stimulant that are commonly abused. Some of the mental effects of amphetamine abuse include increased alertness and energy, a decreased appetite, increased euphoria, and raised blood pressure (Radda, 2006). Amphetamines are the most commonly abused stimulant drugs by youths in Kano; they are so popular that they are called by different names, such as kafi-allura<\/em> (more potent than any stimulant), aji-garau<\/em> (feel strong), and arungunmi zaki<\/em> (being stronger than a lion). Those who abuse amphetamines include farmers, drivers, tailors, truck-pushers, motor mechanics, some market women, and food sellers, among others (Amina, 2006).<\/p>\n

    Cocaine<\/h3>\n

    Cocaine is mainly abused by youths in Nigerian cities that include Lagos, Ibadan, Kaduna, Kano, Enugu, Port Harcourt, Benin, Calabar, and Abuja, among others. Initially the abuse of cocaine was limited to a few individuals who could afford to purchase it because of its price. However, in recent times, the price of cocaine has fallen; as a result, its purchase and abuse among youths has been on the increase (UNDCP, 1999).<\/p>\n

    As a very powerful stimulant drug, cocaine has a high psycho-toxicity and excessively stimulates the central nervous system. The most common method of cocaine intake among Kano youths is by sniffing and this induces nostril and mouth ulcers. Other effects include artificial euphoria, increased heartrate, high blood pressure, depression, and paranoia. It is due to its dangerous and multiple effects that it has been nicknamed hodar Iblis<\/em> (Satanic powder).<\/p>\n

    Tranquilizers<\/h3>\n

    These are a category of drugs commonly abused and include Valium, Librium, Diazepam, Ativan, Magadon, Mandrax, and Lexaton. Tranquillizers, popularly known as depressants or sedatives, are swallowed as tablets and capsules, though some of them are abused in the form of syrups designed to relieve anxiety and stress, promote or induce sleep, or as a relaxant. They have a serious impact in terms of causing drowsiness, forgetfulness, and weakness. These drugs are readily available and are purchased from patent medicine stores that by Law should be registered and handled by qualified and competent pharmacists. Valium and different kinds of cough syrups, in particular Banylin, are the most commonly abused depressants among youths in Kano<\/p>\n

    Inhalants<\/h3>\n

    Toxic inhalants refer to volatile substances that can be abused by sniffing their vapor. The substances are poisonous and include nitrous oxide (laughing gas), hydrocarbon (solvents), chloro-hyrocarbon (aerosols) and amyl or butyl nitrite (poppers or snoppers). These chemicals are ingredients that make up items such as glues, plastic cement, gas lighter fluid, deodorant, air fresheners, paints, and correction fluids. Other forms of inhalants are the steams from latrines and gutters. These are obtained at no cost. The abusers go to the latrine or gutter early in the morning to sniff the steam that alters mood and perception (Yakubu, 2006). The drug abusers derive no medical benefits, but instead suffer from social, psychological, and biological consequences. The substances change the mood of the users, who also suffer from mental disorder, liver, and kidney problems. Under the influence of these organic substances, the abusers escape from reality and get involved in crimes and violence, which has bedeviled not only Kano, but also the whole country.<\/p>\n

    The most commonly abused toxic inhalants by youths in Kano include glue, lighter fluid, paint fumes, nail polish, rubber solutions, kerosene, and fuel. These inhalants are common and the youth have easy access to them. In a number of families, women keep their cosmetics in places where their children have easy and unlimited access to them. Most parents and sisters are not aware that nail polish could be used as a substitute for drugs and, as a result children, take advantage of this ignorance to take nail polish from home. They sniff these agents to derive satisfaction.<\/p>\n

    As for glue and fuel, they are easily available for sale and are inexpensive. Some of the youths get fuel easily from abandoned vehicles or from garages where cars are kept for repairs. Others get the fuel from roadside sellers. Most of the sellers are themselves drug abusers and some of them abuse inhalants, rubber solutions, lemon, paw-paw, and guava leaves. Others include gutter water known as Jamba<\/em> in Hausa, frog secretions, and lizard excretes (Yakubu, 2006). Most of the abusers take a combination of the modern and traditional drugs.<\/p>\n

    Summary<\/h2>\n

    The chapter examined the abuse of traditional and modern drugs by the youth in Kano. The first part of the paper focused its attention on both the major and minor traditional drugs that have addictive potentiality. The former include Kolanut, tobacco, burkutu, <\/em>and the later include hankufa, <\/em>zakami,<\/em> and gadagi. The second part of the paper covered some of the modern drugs abused by the youth; these include marijuana, alcohol, caffeine, amphetamines, cocaine, tranquillizers, and inhalants.<\/p>\n

    Under the influence of drugs, the youth abuser may behave in the most abnormal and extra ordinary manner by engaging in all kinds of social vices and crimes. The abusers, in particular commercial motorcyclists, are involved in serious road accidents and some of them are capable of committing murder, rape, and armed robbery. Those who engage in the abuse of drugs tend to lose their honor as do their families. Their children are sometimes affected by the stigma and find it difficult to get marriage partners in the community. The abuse of both traditional and modern drugs is socially, morally, and religiously unacceptable among the people of Kano. This is one of the reasons why it generally attracts condemnation and a very powerful stigma, from which the abuser loses self respect and is perceived as a problem to himself and the society.<\/p>\n

    Recommendations<\/h2>\n

    The following recommendations may be considered for the control and reduction of drug abuse among youths in Kano:<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. The National Drugs Law Enforcement Agency should intensify efforts to identify the various places where marijuana is purchased and used by youth in Kano. Those apprehended should be promptly prosecuted.<\/li>\n
    2. The Kano State Ministry of Education should enlighten and educate students in particular and youth in general about the danger of drug abuse and tell people to shun the use of all kinds of drugs.<\/li>\n
    3. Women at home should keep away their cosmetics from children in order to deny them access to inhalants such as deodorant, air-freshener, and nail polish.<\/li>\n
    4. The Law prohibiting the sale of drugs by Pharmaceuticals and other Drug Stores to individuals without doctor\u2019s prescription should be effectively enforced.<\/li>\n
    5. The consumption of harmful traditional drugs should be banned, in particular the use of addictive ingredients in tea such as gadagi.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      References<\/h2>\n

      Abdullahi, S. A. (2003) the Use of Traditional Drugs amongst the Kano Youth: The Case of Gadagi.<\/em> In Abdulrashid Garba (ed.), Youth and Drug Abuse in Nigeria: Strategies for Counseling, Management and Control.<\/p>\n

      Adamu, A.U. (2003) Preface.<\/em> In Abdulrashid Garba (ed.), Youth and Drug Abuse in Nigeria: Strategies for counseling, Management and Control.<\/p>\n

      Dawakin Tofa, B. S. (2003) Illicit Drug Distribution Network in Kano Metropolitan<\/em>. In Abdulrashid Garba (ed.), Youth and Drug Abuse in Nigeria: Strategies for counseling, Management and Control.<\/p>\n

      Haruna, M. A. and Abdullahi, S.A. (1991) Poverty and drug Abuse: A Study of Dawanau Rehabilitation Center, Kano State.<\/em> In Last, M. and Khalil, S. (ed.) Kano studies (Special issues), pp 23-39<\/p>\n

      Haruna, M.A. (2005) Substance Abuse in Nigeria: A Psycho-Social Analysis<\/em>. In Suleiman, A.G. (ed.), Readings in Applied Psychology.<\/p>\n

      Kester, T. (1990) Drug Education: An Effective Measure to the Prevention of Drug Abuse. The Adult Education Journal; Vol. 6 N0. 5.<\/p>\n

      Maisto, S.A.; Galizio, M.; Cornor, G.J. (1999) Drug Use and Abuse.<\/em> New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.<\/p>\n

      Musa, Y.Q. (1973) Secondary Environmental Science Methods. <\/em>London: Tavistoch Publication.<\/p>\n

      NAFDAC (2000) The Role of NAFDAC in the Prevention and Control of Drugs in Nigeria: Its Relationship and Expectation from Community\/NGOS\/CBOS. <\/em>A Paper presented at One-Day Conference organized by Youth Society for the Prevention of Infectious Diseases and Social Vices, Kano Foundation Building.<\/p>\n

      Odejide, A.0. (1979) Alcohol Use in Sub-group of Literate Nigerians.<\/em> African Journal of Psychiatry. 1(2)<\/p>\n

      Oshodin, G.O. (1981) Alcohol Abuse: A case Study of Secondary School Students in Rural Areas of Benin District.<\/em> Nigeria Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 8<\/p>\n

      Radda, S.I. (2006) Drug Abuse and Its Consequences on the Youth.<\/em> In Dalhatu, S. (ed.) Essays on Local Government Administration: Fostering Better Service Delivery, Record keeping, Accountability and Empowerment ay the Local Government.<\/p>\n

      Suleiman, B. Mohamed (2006) Issues of Drug abuse and Addiction in Nigeria.<\/em> In Dalhatu, S., Essays On Local Government Administration: Fostering Better Service Delivery, Record keeping, Accountability and Empowerment ay the Local Government.<\/p>\n

      Szasz, T. (1975) Ceremonial Chemistry: A Ritual Persecution of Drug Addicts and Pushers.<\/em> (Rautledge and Keegan Paul Ltd, Broadway House)<\/p>\n

      Tasa, D. (20006) The Legal and Institutional Framework for the Control of Drug Abuse and Related Problems.<\/em> In Dalhatu, S., Essays On Local Government Administration: Fostering Better Service Delivery, Record keeping, Accountability and Empowerment ay the Local Government,<\/p>\n

      UNDCP (1999) Report of the Rapid Situation Assessment of Drug Abuse in Nigeria. November, 1999<\/p>\n

      World Health organization (1991)<\/p>\n

      Yahaya, A. B. (2006) Indian hemp Smoking Among Undergraduate University Students: A Study of Undergraduate Students of Bayero University, Kano.<\/em> Unpublished M. Sc. Thesis submitted to the School of Post-Graduate Studies, Bayero University Kano.<\/p>\n

      Yakubu, Amina (2006) Types of Drugs commonly Used and their Availability at community Level<\/em>. In Dalhatu, S., Essays On Local Government Administration: Fostering Better Service Delivery, Record keeping, Accountability and Empowerment ay the Local Government.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-33","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":29,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/33","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/33\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":249,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/33\/revisions\/249"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/29"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/33\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=33"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=33"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=33"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.ulib.csuohio.edu\/western-african-perspectives\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=33"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}