Political Immigration: 1776-1865

Historical Background

The second era of Polish migration, 1776-1865, involved a considerably larger group of people. Political unrest and the ultimate partitions of Poland by her neighbors–Prussia, Russia, and Austria–were the stimuli to emigration in these years. Most of the Polish emigrants were prominent noblemen and intellectuals who had participated in the defense of the Old Order. Among them were such notables as Thaddeus Kosciuszko and Casimir Pulaski.

It was clearly a different type of Pole who left his homeland at this time. Unlike their predecessors, they were men of distinction and prominence: soldiers, noblemen, poets, educators, and musicians.

A major factor that corroded Poland’s political integrity was the practice of electing kings rather than rooting the transfer of power in a system of dynastic succession. Politically unstable and corrupt, elections were characteristically the product of bargaining, bribery, and foreign interference. Moreover, many of Poland’s sovereigns were foreigners, interested in their own personal aggrandizement rather than the well-being of the Polish State. Lacking a coherent and forceful central leadership and burdened by the frequent interregna, the country experienced a debilitating disorder.^[1]

Poland’s internal strength was also compromised by the legislative practice of liberum veto. This deplorable use of the Polish Parliament permitted any deputy to dissolve the Diet (legislative body), even nullifying many crucial decisions made prior to his intervention. In essence a unanimous vote was necessary to pass any meaningful legislation. It was a means by which unscrupulous nobles could dominate the political scene at the expense of the Polish state and its people.^[2]

Prussia, Russia, and Austria constantly interfered in the internal affairs of Poland, rendering it virtually impossible for the Poles to put their house in order. Indeed the Poles inability to govern themselves in an orderly fashion served as a pretext to partition Poland.^[3]

The country was hobbled by her nobilities’ arbitrary negotiation of alliances with foreign powers. Typically naive and characteristically indifferent to the state’s well-being, they sacrificed Poland in the pursuit of wealth and personal power.^[4]

No nation could withstand such venality and internal fragmentation, especially when accompanied by hostility and aggression from bordering states. Poland’s humiliating dismemberment was only a question of time. Russia benefited most from the three partitions; Prussia’s gains were second largest; and Austria received the smallest share of the territorial spoils.^[5]

American Revolutionary War Period

Since Poland was not extant during the Revolutionary War, there were no “official relations” between Poland and the United States. For it was at this time when the outbreak of the Revolutionary War occurred, that Poland herself had lost much of her international prestige due to the invasion of the Swedes, Turks, Russians, Cossacks, and Tartars.

The King of Poland, Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, was educated and liberal. He was extremely interested in the American Colonies and their struggle. Educated in England, he was also interested in its political affairs. Both Americans and Englishmen were always welcome in his court.^[6]

The American war aroused much interest in Poland. Expressions of concern are found in Polish publications written about the war. One of them was “The Political History of the Present American Revolution,” written by Thomas Raunal, translated from French by F. Siarczynski, and published by the King’s printer, Michael Groell, in Warsaw.^[7]

Stanislaus Augustus was quite concerned that there was no representation of the American Colonies in the British Parliament. He states his anxiety over this matter in a letter written to Charles Lee, Adjutant to the King and General of the Polish Army:

…Representation and taxation then go together, and the connection between the mother and her daughter would become indissoluble; otherwise I see no alternative but oppression or entire independence.^[8]

He went on to say that without representation conflicts of interest would occur which would not benefit either country. Furthermore he felt that an injustice might occur in America similar to that in Poland.

Stanislaus Augustus continued to be loyal to America even after he lost his throne. Evidence of this loyalty is found in letters to George Washington whom he held in high esteem. One letter, written in 1795 while he was a prisoner of the Russians at Grodno, clearly states his feelings:

Your conduct in war and in peace has inspired me for a long time with the desire of expressing to you the high esteem in which I bear you. It will be pleasing to me that an American shall bear the marks of my esteem and affection in the midst of his compatriots, in the midst of that nation which has known how to win for itself already such an opinion from the inhabitants of the Old Hemisphere, that is able in many ways to serve them as a lesson and a model.^[9]

During the American Revolution Polish volunteers crossed the ocean to fight for American independence. Of those who came, Thaddeus Kosciuszko was the first foreign patriot and the most famous. It was his plan to strengthen Sugar Loaf Hill. This plan was approved by General Gates, who was unexpectedly transferred before it could be implemented. General Schuyler, the new commander, vetoed Kosciuszko’s plan because he thought it unnecessary and impractical. The hill was quickly taken by the British, under the command of General Burgoyne, who followed the same plan Kosciuszko had given General Gates, and the Americans were forced to withdraw to Ticonderoga.^[10]

After the retreat from Ticonderoga, Kosciuszko organized the defenses at Bemis Heights, near Saratoga. Here the American troops surrounded General Burgoyne and forced him to surrender on October 17, 1777. This surrender was a turning point in the American Revolution. In response to the colonists’ success, France recognized the United States and agreed to contribute money and material in support of the war.^[11]

Kosciuszko also supervised in the successful construction at West Point. The significance of his role there is illustrated by the praise he received from General John Armstrong:

Kosciuszko’s merit lies in this that he gave the fortifications such strength that they frightened the very enemy from all temptation of even trying to take the Highlands.^[12]

In 1780 Kosciuszko requested a transfer to the Southern Army in order to serve with General Gates. Prior to his arrival, however, General Gates was defeated at Camden, South Carolina, and Kosciuszko served under his replacement, General Green. Once again, Kosciuszko rendered valuable assistance to the colonists as a strategist and line officer.^[13]

For his distinguished service to the cause of American Independence, Kosciuszko was awarded a pension, land in Franklin County, Ohio, American citizenship, and the rank of brigadier general. He was also elected a member of the Society of Cincinnati, a rare honor for foreigners. General Green considered him a “master of his profession”:

In the execution of my orders he has always been willing, competent, inaccessible to any temptation of pleasure, not fatigued by any labor, intrepid in any danger. He is incomparably modest. He has never expressed a desire for anything in his favor, and has never omitted an opportunity to commend and reward the services of others.^[14]

In 1784, Kosciuszko returned to Poland to join the effort against partition. At the country’s defeat in 1795, he was jailed. After two years in prison, Kosciuszko was released and he returned to America, just long enough to arrange for the disposal of his property. Entrusting Thomas Jefferson with his will and naming him the executor of his estate, Kosciuszko sailed for Poland in 1798. His commitment to the rights of man is boldly expressed in this document:

I, Thaddeus Kosciuszko, being just on my departure from America, do hereby declare and direct that, should I make no other testamentary disposition of my property in the United States, I hereby authorize my friend, Thomas Jefferson to employ the whole thereof in purchasing Negroes from among his own or any other and giving them liberty in my name; in having them instructed in for their new condition in the duties of morality which may make them good neighbors, good fathers and mothers, husbands and wives, in their duty as citizens; teaching them to be defenders of their liberty and country, of the good order of society, and in whatever may make them happy and useful.^[15]

Inspired by pure idealism, Casimir Pulaski came to America to “fight for liberty.” On August 13, 1778 he wrote Colonel R.H. Lee: “Honor and a desire of distinguishing myself in defense of Liberty was the only motive which fired my breast for the cause of the United States.”^[16]

Russian oppression had forced Count Pulaski to leave Poland. Hearing of the American Revolution, he asked permission to aid the colonists. Through intercession of Benjamin Franklin and three French friends, Beaumarchais, Rulhiere and Vergennes, Pulaski was ultimately granted an officer’s commission in the Continental Army. While awaiting Congress’ decision, however, Pulaski enlisted in the army. Though only a volunteer, his skill and courage were exploited by Washington in a surprise attack upon the advancing forces of General Howe that saved the army from destruction at Brandywine and later at Warren Tavern.^[17] In recognition of his bravery, Pulaski was immediately commissioned the “first Commander of the American Cavalry with the rank of Brigadier General.”^[18]

During the winter Pulaski’s cavalry was transferred to Trenton, New Jersey. It was here that he used all his energies to improve this branch of service, including: a reorganization of the regiments of dragoons; the creation of a new unit armed with Polish lances; and the development of a set of service regulations which were the first given to a cavalry. Through these regulations, he “tried to inspire his soldiers with discipline and martial spirit on every occasion.”^[19]

On March 19, 1778 Congress recognized the formation of the corps known as the Pulaski Legion. This legion was comprised mainly of Frenchmen, Germans, and Poles. While visiting in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, he ordered a banner for his Legion from the Moravian Sisters and paid for it out of his own funds.^[20]

In September 1778 the Legion was sent by Washington to New Jersey. It was here that the infantry of the Legion was attacked by the British at Egg Harbor. Thirty lives were lost, including that of the infantry’s Polish commander, Baron de Batzen. Retreating with “heavy losses,” Pulaski and his cavalry came to the rescue.^[21]

Pulaski was also instrumental in preventing the loss of Charleston, South Carolina. The British were close to the city and advancing rapidly. The army commander, General Prevost, demanded that Charleston surrender. In the midst of the negotiations, Pulaski unexpectedly appeared and vowed to defend Charleston. Pulaski’s fame and success of the Legion “had considerable influence in dispelling the general panic, and introducing military sentiments into the minds of the citizens.”^[22] Prevost was forced to withdraw and the city remained under colonial control.

Recognized historically as the “father of American cavalry,” Pulaski’s skill and courage as a commander were invaluable assets to the all too often demoralized and inept Continental Army. Of all the Polish officers who participated in the Revolutionary War, he is considered the most romantic, and professionally, the most prominent.^[23] A spirited soldier, he embraced the colonial cause as his own: “I could not submit to stoop before the sovereigns of Europe, so I came here to hazard all for the freedom of America.”^[24] Although many brave men served America throughout the Revolutionary War, Pulaski was special.

Pulaski and Kosciuszko were but the most famous of the many Poles who fought in this war and helped win the independence of the United States. Some, like them, came to America during the Revolution “with the sole purpose of fighting on the side of the ideals of liberty and justice.” Others had settled in America prior to the war and were of Polish descent. Their identities and numbers are impossible to determine with any degree of certainty. Records were not kept accurately and many were destroyed or lost. In addition, misspelling of names was common and numerous Poles Anglicized their names. The few surviving materials are also compromised by their inadequacies, lacking information regarding nationality, or family of those involved. (In fact Pulaski’s name is found spelled Polasque.)^[25]

Some Poles or those who were assumed Poles were: Joseph Baldeski (Baldesque–Baldesqui) who was captain and paymaster of the Pulaski Legion. Although an honest man, pay vouchers were easily lost during long marches and battles and Baldeski was constantly called to verify his work. He was also held by Congress in Philadelphia until accounts were settled. Pulaski persistently and faithfully came to Baldeski’s side and defended him against any suspicion of his integrity.^[26]

Maurice August Beniowski was born in Hungary. His relationship with Poland was hereditary. It was his strong desire to serve in the American War with Count Pulaski whom he claimed was his half-brother. After much difficulty Congress gave permission for Beniowski to serve with the Count. However, Pulaski, now with the Southern Army, was on his death bed when Beniowski arrived. According to Doctor P. Joseph Johnson, author of Traditions and Reminiscences, Surgeon General Doctor P. Fayssoux who knew the details of Pulaski’s death, stated that Pulaski “had the consolation of being attended in his last hours by a countryman–a relative, a friend, a brother Confederate in the cause of their native country.”^[27] Furthermore, it was pointed out that Beniowski (Benyowsky) was “recognized by the dying hero, officiated as his relative, chief mourner and heir, and departed.^[28]

Beniowski, alone in a strange country, with limited knowledge of English, tried to adjust to his new life. He wrote sporadically to Congress hoping for a commission in the Army or Navy. In 1782, in a letter to Washington he offered his “blood, knowledge, and bravery.” Included in this letter was a plan to raise a Legionary Corps of Germans for the cause of the United States. He would “raise, clothe, arm, equip and transport” them from Germany to America. Washington endorsed this plan but inserted changes before submitting it to the Board of War. The proposal was declined, however, because peace seemed near and there was no need to resume action on land. After this refusal Beniowski returned to Europe and nothing more is known about him.^[29]

Another Pole who joined in the American service was Kotkowski (Kolkawski, Kotskoelski). He was highly recommended by Pulaski and consequently was commissioned Captain of the Legion by Congress.

In 1779 he was court-martialed, found guilty, and dismissed. The facts of the court-martial trial or the events that led to this court-martial are meager or unknown. Kotkowski was the only Pole to be discharged from this war. Despite this unfortunate event, it is a fact that his aspirations to serve the American cause were all in earnest. It is presumed that he returned to Europe, for nothing more is known.^[30]

There were many other less notable officers who fought in the American War for Independence, such as Kraszewski, Charles Litonski, and Matthias Rogowski, to name a few.

Polish Settlements in Texas

Because Europe held the primary interest of the Spaniards they were indifferent toward their territory of Texas. Thus attempts to colonize this land were minor until the eighteenth century. And, when colonization became a major Spanish concern, the endeavors were inadequate, unstable, and rashly done. This poor planning did, however, result in the following settlements: San Antonio, Goliad, and Nacogdoches.^[31]

When Louisiana became United States territory in 1803, the Spanish feared the possibility of Texas also becoming American territory. Free immigration into Texas was halted immediately, and only “Catholics who would be loyal to Spain and who could be relied upon to defend the province against foreign encroachments” were legally allowed entrance. Typical of Spanish rule, however, the proscriptions went unheard of.^[32]

The Spanish Consul at New Orleans, Diego Morphi, devised a plan for the colonization of Texas he was sure would not only preserve Spain’s control in the American West, but also aid her efforts to defeat Napoleon in Europe. Its success depended entirely on Polish immigration. It was Morphi’s strong belief that the Poles would desert Napoleon provided they were guaranteed transportation to Texas where they could “devote themselves to agriculture and useful arts.” He also suggested they be granted a strip of land in the Gulf of Mexico and near the frontier of Louisiana, i.e., be made a buffer for Texas. As an added inducement for colonization, he recommended the immigrants be exempted from all taxes and self-government.^[33]

Morphi’s plan was rejected. Spanish authorities knew the Poles looked to Napoleon as “the only power on earth that could restore their own unhappy country to freedom.”^[34] Moreover, it was feared that the settlement of foreigners on the frontier would jeopardize Spain’s interests and that the Poles would, ultimately, aid the United States if a conflict arose.

The disorganization of European societies caused by the Napoleonic wars and mass migrations at their end affected America also. Many of Napoleon’s soldiers, as well as dislocated peoples, entered the United States.

It is well known that Polish immigration helped to win liberty for Texas and to extend the frontier of the United States to the Rio Grande and the Pacific. General Henri Dominique Lallemand, and his brother Charles Francois Antoine, for example, formed an expedition at Philadelphia to colonize part of Spanish Texas. Upon their arrival, they took possession of the land West of Galveston and founded the military colony of Champ-d’-Asile.^[35] Constantin Paul Malczewski was one of the most distinguished members of the Champ-d’-Asile Colony. Along with three other officers he “planned and directed” the building of the forts that served as protection for the colony. Despite all efforts, however, Champ-d’-Asile failed. Illness, hunger, and other misfortunes caused the colonists to disperse. Some resettled in Alabama and others in Louisiana.^[36]

Another immigrant associated with the Polish cause was Doctor Anthony Michael Dignowity who settled in San Antonio. He was a Bohemian by birth and a professional mechanical engineer. He became an army volunteer for the Polish cause during the Polish Insurrection of 1830-31. In America Dignowity studied medicine and became a renowned physician and an outstanding citizen.48

The rapid growth of Texas’s population caused the Mexican rulers to become concerned and suspicious of the Americans., Recognizing the American influence and fearful of a possible loss of their territory, Mexican authorities began to enforce new and old laws such as abolishment of slavery, imposition of taxes, interference in local affairs, and apprehension of colonists. These laws led to a revolution in 1835.

Under the command of Colonel Fannin, American volunteers fought for Texas independence. Their army, however, was comprised of only four hundred men, mostly Poles, while that of the Mexican General Urreas was five times greater. Despite this numerical superiority, Colonel Fannin’s army was able to withstand the pressure until March 10, 1836 when Colonel Fannin was subdued and most of his Polish army was executed on March 27, 1836.^[37]

After the defeat of Fannin’s army, Santa Anna, the Mexican President was able to capture the Alamo. However, his victory was short lived. Felix Wardryski (Wardzinski), under the command of General Sam Houston, defeated him at San Jacinto. The Mexican army retreated and Santa Anna was captured and taken prisoner.

In order for Santa Anna to gain liberty, he made a treaty which stopped the war and recognized Texas Independence.^[38]

After the Texas war of independence, another Pole became known for attracting Poles to Texas: Father Leopold Moczygemba. After his ordination in 1825, as a Franciscan Monk, he was sent to Texas. He came to love this country greatly. Because of this affection he inaugurated a plan to import large groups of Poles from his homeland. He took it upon himself to write encouraging letters to family and friends in Silesia. Because of these letters an “emigration fever” influenced approximately one hundred families from his village as well as surrounding villages such as Warwentow and Blotnica to emigrate. These families chartered a ship and landed in 1854 at Galveston. Their belongings were only a few necessities. However, among these chattels were a large crucifix and bells from their church in Poland. These new immigrants established residence in Karnes County and founded the village of Panna Maria.^[39]

Poles in California

In California, Spanish authorities were extremely apprehensive and resentful of strangers entering their land. Consequently, if a ship was forced to undergo repairs on their shores, it was immediately captured along with the cargo. American sailors, therefore, became cautious and welcomed sites that were isolated and peaceful to repair their ships. So it happened that William Shaler and Richard Cleveland, merchant-adventurers of New England, discovered a site on Catalina Island where they could safely make rush repairs. This area was yet unnamed. Hence, Shaler and Cleveland christened it Port Rouissillon. Who or what was Rouissillon?

Rouissillon was said to have been a member of an “ancient noble family of Poland,” a strong believer in individual liberty who rejected the disciplined life of his native land. He became acquainted with Shaler and Cleveland in Hamburg, Germany.

Although his name is not even mentioned in the geography of California, it has been assumed that he was a Polish count living incognito. With this disguise, so to speak, he was able to avoid any encounters that might have occurred with enemies. California attracted many Poles during the 1840’s and 1850’s. Earlier settlers were immigrant veterans from Polish uprisings, while the period of the gold rush “became the spark which released the great influx of the Polish Peasant or economic immigration to this country.”