Part One: The History and Culture of Poland by Judith Zielinski-Zak

The Social, Economic, and Political History of Poland

Poland has attained greater heights and suffered deeper humiliations than any other Eastern European country. As a nation they moved from a position of immense power in the Middle Ages to being literally wiped off the map for more than a century and a half during the eighteenth century. Yet despite continuous external and internal political strife, and devastating major wars, they survived–a credit to their perseverance and national pride. Witness to their present vitality is the fact that they now have the largest population and territory of all Eastern European countries.

Much of Polish tradition and national consciousness is rooted in geography. From very early times, Poles have resisted German pressure from the West and Russian expansion from the East. Yet Poland has adapted to a variety of foreign influences without losing a sense of ethnic unity. She has always considered herself to be the true center of Europe. She has zealously fought for and guarded her only access to the sea, through the Baltic. Often discussed as one reason for the many invasions of Poland is the flatness of the country, with its long Vistula river winding through the nation and flowing north into the Baltic. While the central plains are flat and open, there are also variations in the topography. Marshy flood plains abound near various rivers and a myriad of lakes fringed with reeds and swamps exist. There are forested areas and the Sudetan and Carpathian mountains form barriers to the south.

Drawn by Patricia Bashel
Drawn by Patricia Bashel

The Beginning of the Polish State: Piast and Jagiellon Dynasties

The Slavs settled in East Central Europe in approximately the sixth century and gradually became an agrarian people. The history of Poland as a unified state began with the settling of a branch of the Western Slavs, the Poles (meaning field-dwellers), between the Vistula and Warta rivers. In 966 Mieszko I, the fourth ruler of the Piast dynasty, married the Czech Princess Dubravka, converting himself and the entire nation to Roman Catholicism. This made Poland an East Central European country with a Western outlook. The reign of the first ruling dynasty of Poland, the house of Piast (native Pole), lasted from 966 to 1386.

Poland then consisted of a group of loosely connected provinces each under the suzerainty of a local noble. In 1226 Prince Konrad of Mazovia invited the Teutonic Knights, a Catholic crusading order, to help him convert pagan Lithuania and to help incorporate that country into his dukedom. More than extending aid, however, the Knights became firmly entrenched and effectively cut off Polish access to the Baltic for the ensuing 200 years. In 1386 the marriage of a Polish queen to Wladyslaw Jagiello, Duke of Lithuania, brought the two countries into a personal union. They fought the Knights and were victorious in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. The Teutonic Order never recovered its former power.

In response to the constant threat of Tartar raids in the 13th century, Germans were invited to colonize unoccupied areas and create a buffer zone. The conditions of colonization were favorable, especially in that the right of the colonists to live under German law was guaranteed.

Cracow, Poland's former capital. The city is a treasure of architectural monuments. The photograph shows remnants of the 15th-century Barbican fortifications with the entry gate to the medieval city and a 13th-century Florianska Gate in the upper right. (This picture taken from the collection of pictures entitled Great Poles by Edward Fracki, Stanislaw Brodzki and Andrzej Zahorski. Warsaw: Interpress Publishers, 1970.)
Cracow, Poland’s former capital. The city is a treasure of architectural monuments. The photograph shows remnants of the 15th-century Barbican fortifications with the entry gate to the medieval city and a 13th-century Florianska Gate in the upper right. (This picture taken from the collection of pictures entitled Great Poles by Edward Fracki, Stanislaw Brodzki and Andrzej Zahorski. Warsaw: Interpress Publishers, 1970.)

By 1350, 1200 villages and 120 towns were under German law. The German colonization was attractive to Polish leaders not only from a need to repel invaders, but because the szlachta were being subject to increasing taxes. The Polish term szlachta may be translated as nobility, but it more properly means gentry. As a social class, they were the landowners, titled and privileged.

The Renaissance and The Reformation

The Renaissance entered Poland through Bohemia from Italy and was embraced with fervor by the court of King Sigismund August (1548-1572) and his Italian queen, Bona Sforza of Milanese nobility. In the first half of the sixteenth century, the Reformation spread to the major ports and especially Gdansk, a city with a large and prosperous German element. Both Lutheranism and Calvinism penetrated the upper classes. In fact, the traditionally Catholic gentry sometimes used the Reformation as an excuse to vent their frustrations and plunder the Church of its wealth and property. The Reformation spread with the growth of printing and the humanistic influence of the universities of Prague and Leipzig, where many Poles studied. On the other hand the famous Jagiellon University of Cracow, founded in 1364, fostered Catholicism and scholasticism in education. The Jesuit Order arrived in Poland in 1565 to initiate the Counter-Reformation and became firmly entrenched in Polish religious and political life.

Poland as a Republic

The period of an elected kingship began in 1572 and did not end until the last king, Stanislaus August Poniatowski, was elected in 1764. This system may sound curious to us, but there were precedents in Europe. Often these elected kings were not Polish at all. While some of these rulers, Stefan Batory of Hungary for one, were wise and able, the system led to a crisis of sovereignty. Besides this between the 16th and 18th centuries, Poland was frequently at war, fighting with the Swedes for Livonia and Pomerania in the seventeenth century, with Russia over her Eastern borders, and with Turkey over control of the Ukraine. She suffered greatly, losing precious manpower, financial strength, and for a time, her own independence. The great Northern War between Sweden and Russia brought havoc and ruin to Poland. Swedish, Saxon and Russian troops devastated much arable Polish land, and famine and pestilence followed.

King Jan Sobieski’s achievement in stopping the Turks at Vienna is a matter of historical pride for the Poles. But generally speaking, the European powers and even Sobieski’s own subjects did not truly appreciate the significance of the event. Many Poles resented the severe strain on their already exhausted country. King Sobieski died a sadly disillusioned man for his plans to establish a hereditary throne and to decrease the power of the gentry had failed. Peace with Turkey was concluded in 1699, but the price was high.

Stanislaus August Poniatowski, the last king of Poland, was an aristocrat inbued with the ideals of the Enlightenment. Although he was well educated, multilingual and a patron of the arts, he was a weak and vacillating monarch. Yet from the beginning of his reign in 1764, he gathered about him men of vision who worked desperately for needed social and political reform. One of these men was Hugo Kollataj (1750-1812).

Kollataj led the demand for a strong hereditary monarchy, universal taxation and abolition of the custom of the liberum veto. Although never a formal legal procedure, the liberum veto practice was unique and dangerous. If one member of the Diet voted against a proposal, it was not only defeated, but the negative vote could dissolve, or “explode,” the entire assembly. This meant any laws already passed in that same session were also null and void.

In 1683 the Polish King John III Sobieski saved Europe from the threat of Turkish invasion by destroying the Turkish army besieging Vienna. The copper plate depicting this great victory was done by the Dutch artist Romeyn de Hooghe. (This picture taken from the collection of pictures entitled Great Poles by Edward Fracki, Stanislaw Brodzki and Andrzej Zahorski. Warsaw: Interpress Publishers, 1970.)
In 1683 the Polish King John III Sobieski saved Europe from the threat of Turkish invasion by destroying the Turkish army besieging Vienna. The copper plate depicting this great victory was done by the Dutch artist Romeyn de Hooghe. (This picture taken from the collection of pictures entitled Great Poles by Edward Fracki, Stanislaw Brodzki and Andrzej Zahorski. Warsaw: Interpress Publishers, 1970.)

All the reformers were fighting against the weaknesses inherent in the system of elected kingship. Each election brought the threat of foreign pressure, and sometimes, force and bribery were used to elect a new king. Each new king had to agree formally to a Pacta Conventa, a contract between the king and his subjects. By the mid-eighteenth century, the rights of the gentry had grown disproportionately to those of other classes. Since some of the gentry commanded thousands of troops, this often meant that the king really had less power than his rich subjects.

The Partition of Poland

By 1750 the Polish system of government had become a manifestation of individualism, supreme and uncontrolled. Lacking strong central authority, Poland was subject to the whims and capriciousness of its gentry. They perceived liberty as their own private property and never understood that force chokes liberty. Freedom was interpreted by the gentry to mean the right to choose kings, rather than the right to encourage a strong monarchy or to create truly representative government. Not all of the gentry, however, were selfish and politically naive. Some, like those who advised king Poniatowski, disagreed violently with their peers and tried to encourage reform. After the First Partition of the country by Russia, Prussia and Austria, a group of enlightened Poles led by Kollataj tried unceasingly to save their nation through the creation of the famous, albeit ill fated, constitution of the Third of May 1791.

Expressing many of the liberal and humanitarian principles found in the French and American constitutions, the constitution declared a hereditary monarchy and abolished the liberum veto. Russia was furious at the audacity of the Poles and declared war. It was brief, and in victory Russia partitioned Poland a second time (1793). A frightened Diet abolished the constitution and somberly accepted the Treaty of Partition. More land was taken from Poland. Though divided and defeated, Poland rose in a valiant revolt led by Tadeusz Kosziuszko. Educated in France, he sympathized with the French Revolution of 1789. Kosciuszko and his troops fought bravely but they were defeated at Maciejowice. The Third Partition that followed in 1795 obliterated Poland from the map of Europe. Kosciuszko’s life was spared, but he was imprisoned in Russia. While Poland as a political entity ceased to exist, her culture survived in the people, and the struggle for independence continued with renewed vigor.

Drawn by Patricia Bashel
Drawn by Patricia Bashel

Napoleonic Era

Many Poles looked to Napoleon for the restoration of the Polish state. The Polish Napoleonic Legion was founded in Italy in 1797. Under the command of Jan Henryk Dabrowski, Polish nationalism flared. The famous anthem, “Poland is Not Dead as Long as We are Living,” was written at that time. In 1798 the Poles helped the French to capture Rome. The Legion also fought in Santo Domingo in 1803 to crush a slave insurrection against the French. Those Poles who did not perish in that awful campaign died from fever and starvation. Napoleon recognized the bravery of the Polish cavalry, but his public statements rarely gave them credit. Yet Poles continued to believe that their efforts for Napoleon would restore their country. They fought for France because they thought they were fighting for the liberation of Poland. Napoleon could not have shattered the Polish dreams even if he had tried. To the people, the myth had become a reality. But some Poles did not trust Napoleon. Among these was Tadeusz Kosciuszko who recognized Napoleon for what he was: a political realist for whom France would always come first. However, few heeded his warning.

It is highly unlikely that Napoleon entertained any plans for Poland other than the use of Polish troops. The added prospect of intimidating his enemies by the possibility of a reconstituted Poland, and the implications of a French-Polish alliance for their power and possessions, were weighty levers he enjoyed using. Napoleon manipulated all sides and capitalized upon the anxieties of Russia, Prussia and Austria. After defeating the Russians in 1807, Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw from lands acquired by the Prussians during the first and second partitions. The King of Saxony was designated ruler of the Dutchy. Many Poles believed the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was the beginning of a completely liberated Poland.
When Napoleon declared war on Russia in 1812, approximately 100,000 Poles were among the 500,000 man army which moved into Russia. The Polish hoped a defeat of Russia would reunite Lithuania with the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Patriotism surged again in Poland.
Napoleon’s defeat meant the end of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. However, the Congress of Vienna did establish a new Polish political entity in 1815 to be controlled by Prussia and Austria under the rule of the Russian Tsar and his successor who held the title, King of Poland.
By the mid-nineteenth century, Poland and her people were impoverished; losses of manpower and natural resources due to war were tremendous. The best and bravest fighters had perished in the Napoleonic wars and in the revolts against Russia. Others were exiled and imprisoned. Many patriotic Poles survived these punishments, but lived on as broken and demoralized men. Many of the intelligentsia, the greatest thinkers and scholars, the educated gentry, wealthy merchants and members of the upper middle class fled to Western Europe, especially to England and to France while others emigrated to America.

Bismarck’s Kulturkampf

The relationship of the Prussians and their Chancellor Otto von Bismarck to the Poles provides insight on the effects of partition. Bismarck believed that a rehabilitated Poland would mean disaster for Prussia. He would not tolerate the prospect of any separatist movement in his drive to create a unified Germany. This was probably Bismarck’s main motive for embarking upon the infamous “Kulturkampf,”–the “War of Civilizations,” “Prussianism against Christianity.”
This war began as a Prussian policy against the interference of Rome in the unification of Germany. To Bismarck it became a personal matter of race and culture, especially where the Poles were concerned. In a conflict with Rome, he knew that Catholic Poland would be more difficult to control. The notorious “May Laws” of 1873 forbade the clergy from speaking about state affairs in church, made civil marriage compulsory, and demanded that the state supervise all school inspection. Other provisions of the laws were more harsh, and directly involved Polish Catholics. No priest could hold office in the Church unless he was German and educated at a German university. Bismarck underestimated Polish tenacity regarding matters of faith. The Church provided a great source of solace and a sense of unity to the Polish people. Polish Catholicism combines fervor with mysticism and nationalism.
In May, 1874, German was declared to be the only official language of instruction. Because of their refusal to comply, many priests were imprisoned and the churches stood empty. For the Poles, the “war of civilizations” had become a war against them and their culture. New laws were enacted which infuriated the Polish people. City names were changed. Leszno was named Lisso, Chelmno became Kulm, Pila was ballooned into Schneidemuhl, and Krolowiec and Bydgoszcz were clipped and tidied to Konigsberg and Bromberg. Letters would arrive addressed to a town of the old Polish name and the Post Office would often conveniently lose such mail. Because of civil registration of births and marriages, German officials could, and did, arbitrarily Germanize Polish family names. Sometimes resistance was a very serious matter, but it had an occasional humorous aspect. Meetings were forbidden if Polish were spoken, so the irrepressible Poles simply used chalk and blackboard. They met without breaking the law.
Prussian officials also recognized the value of attacking a sociopolitical problem by education. They hoped that by Germanizing the children through the schools they could effectively achieve greater cooperation. Inspectors were exclusively German. The Polish language was systematically barred from all schools. The parents, however, retaught the day’s lessons in Polish in the privacy of their homes. It was a tug of war for the minds of the young. By 1901, German was the exclusive language, even in religious instruction. Children were punished for praying or speaking in Polish.
One tragic consequence of such repression was the decline of Polish literature in Prussian Poland. There were a few notable exceptions, for example, the novel Placowka (The Outpost), written in 1886 by Boleslaw Prus. It is a story about the resistance of a poor farmer whose land was threatened by German colonists.

Economic Pressures

Language was not the only battleground. Economic pressures built up over a number of years. A Colonization Commission was established by the Prussians in 1886 with headquarters in Poznan. Its purpose was to buy Polish estates and lease them to German settlers. Despite valiant efforts by Father Piotr Wawrzyniak of Mogilno who organized a Union of Cooperatives Bank to thwart the Commission’s plans, the colonization process continued. Father Wawrzyniak’s movement fostered cessation of bloody rebellions and salvaging what could be had by hard work and group loyalty. He led the cooperative movement for over forty years working legally through the system. The boycott was employed against non-Polish buyers. “Buy Polish” and “Sell Polish” became battle cries.
Germany took drastic action in response by investing even larger sums for colonization projects. Inexorably the battle for land went on.
Suffering from such pressures and harsh conditions, thousands of Poles fled to America during the last quarter of the nineteenth century seeking a better life economically, but most important, seeking freedom. These events help explain why many Poles emigrated to America and why various gaps exist in Polish cultural development of that period. Hatred of everything Polish, attacks on Catholicism and the Polish language and poverty combined to make life horrible. Many of the same types of repressive elements were visible in the Russian and Austrian sectors, even though the Austrians were Roman Catholic and the Russians were themselves Slavs.
As Americans, we tend to forget our own capacity to hate, and we tend to dismiss European antagonisms as archaic and incomprehensible. This process works similarly among Europeans who do not understand American history. American ethnic history demands a knowledge of nineteenth century values and attitudes, as they developed in the Old World and were often transplanted to the United States.

Poland After World War I

When World War I ended in 1918, the Polish state was reconstituted and lasted until 1939. One of President Woodrow Wilson’s famous Fourteen Points was that Poland should live again and have access to the Baltic. Poland struggled to her feet, faced with immense social, political and economic problems. Political instability in these first years was overwhelming but the Poles tried to cope. Despite a lack of expertise in self-government after decades of foreign domination, great progress was made in many facets of life. Order was somewhat restored by the strong militaristic discipline of Joseph Pilsudski, who officially controlled Poland from 1926 to 1935. Against a background of worldwide depression, Pilsudski attempted the twofold task of stabilizing the government and advancing the nation economically. After years of strenuous effort, the independent Polish nation began to grow stronger when the nightmare of Hitler’s invasion took place in September 1939. Again Poland was caught between the Russians and the Germans, crushed and occupied. After the devastation, an exhausted people once again rebuilt their country from the rubble of war.

Modern Poland

Poland today is a strange mixture of newness and antiquity mingled with somber vestiges of war. Its progress reflects the indomitable spirit of the people, their invincible will to survive. In modern Warsaw, the latest architectural designs stand side by side with ancient churches. Scattered about the city are walls full of bullet holes, a silent reminder of the holocaust. Poland lost over one-fifth of her population; this will never be forgotten. On prominent display, especially on legal holidays are banners and billboards which proclaim “Nigdy Wiecej” (Never Again!). The simplicity of these words is their eloquence.
In 1944, Poland became a socialist republic and is today a Soviet satellite nation. The years immediately after World War II also created a new immigrant group of approximately 100,000 Poles who came to America. Though this group did represent a broad spectrum of social classes, it differed from earlier immigrants. A higher percentage of the emigres were from among the intelligentsia, and possessed strong anti-Communist feelings as well as a highly developed sense of culture and refinement. They contributed immensely to the intellectual and artistic wealth of America. They rejuvenated Polish culture which, when they arrived, was already changing to Polish-American culture.
Warsaw, Poland's capital. (This picture taken from the collection of pictures entitled Great Poles by Edward Fracki, Stanislaw Brodzki and Andrzej Zahorski. Warsaw: Interpress Publishers, 1970.)
Warsaw, Poland’s capital. (This picture taken from the collection of pictures entitled Great Poles by Edward Fracki, Stanislaw Brodzki and Andrzej Zahorski. Warsaw: Interpress Publishers, 1970.)

Since December, 1970, the leader of Poland has been Edward Gierek, who visited the United States in 1974. Closer cultural and economic ties have been fostered with America. Each year, more and more Americans visit Poland. Since its initial Year Abroad Program in 1970, the Kosciuszko Foundation of New York has increased its programs. American universities and other institutions are promoting similar educational programs or tours.

Taken from Pounds, Norman J.G. Poland Between East and West. New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1964, p. 114.
Taken from Pounds, Norman J.G. Poland Between East and West. New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1964, p. 114.

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Polish Americans and Their Communities of Cleveland Copyright © by Cleveland State University . All Rights Reserved.

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